Purposeful perception of phenomena. Theme is perception. Basic properties of perception

Observation, unlike other methods and techniques, forms a vivid “living” idea of the world around us. Thanks to this method, it is possible to form one of the most important personality qualities - observation.

IN visual arts which has sensory bases, observation is one of basic indicative actions. The observation method is aimed at shaping this action.

RequirementsTo observation

1. Focus Observation in visual activity means the perception, first of all, of the content, those features of the object that will serve as the basis for the image and will allow one to visually present the artistic image as the result of visual activity.

2. Emotionality of perception. Without feelings generated by communication with people, art, nature, the man-made objective world, there can be no art, there can be no artistic, creative activity. Knowledge that is not supported, not associated with feelings, does not encourage active action and, in particular, to express oneself in visual activities.

3. Meaningfulness of observation. Visual activity requires a special perception of objects, phenomena, identification and awareness of those properties that are to be depicted (shape, color, proportions, etc.). The child must understand many visible phenomena. For example, why are the pine trees in the forest tall, slender, powerful, but one pine tree on the shore grew large and gnarled? Why are the hare's hind legs stronger and longer than the front ones? That is, the external signs of objects are interpreted on the basis of revealing the internal content of the phenomenon, significant connections between external signs and the internal state, and the influence of some factors. In this case, the process of cognition is deeper, feelings are more meaningful, and a general idea of the phenomenon arises, allowing the child to better navigate when perceiving similar or contrasting phenomena.

4. Children's activity. During observation, it is necessary to ensure a wide variety of activities for children: emotional, mental, speech, motor. Only under this condition will the observation process be effective.

5. Repeatability of observations It is especially important for children to create diverse, expressive images. In the process of repeated observations, children can see one object in changing conditions(birch tree on a clear sunny day, at sunset, on a windy day; forest in “golden” and late autumn). In the process of repeated observations, one can see a variety of objects of the same type: different in appearance trucks depending on the specific functional purpose; different residential buildings or buildings with different purposes (school, kindergarten, residential building, palace for children, etc.). Thus, Repeated targeted observations significantly enrich children's understanding. The last observation should be as close as possible to the imaging process, since, due to the dominant involuntary nature of all mental processes in preschool children, it is impossible to retain for a long time the “fresh” vivid impressions necessary for the image.

6. Taking into account the age capabilities of children and image tasks in the selection of the volume of representations formed in the course of observation. This requirement is realized both in the content and in the method of conducting observation with children.

The methodology for organizing and conducting observations with children involves:

· the need to choose a place and time in accordance with the objectives of observation,

· a variety of questions that activate children’s cognitive activity,

enrichment of observation with other methods: story, explanation, artistic word, game moments, survey elements, etc.

Example. You can organize observation of spring birch trees on a bright sunny day. In a conversation, draw the attention of preschoolers to color and color: why does the crown of birches seem pink? How do pink and brown tones combine against a blue sky?

Advise the children to think about how this can be depicted.

One more observation can be made in order to focus the attention of children on changes in the same object (spring birches) in the evening or on a cold cloudy day. It is advisable to offer preschoolers a more complex task: to notice as many changes as possible in this picture of nature.

If the children have to draw a spring birch grove on a cloudy day, they should observe how the outlines of the crown change (there is no such clarity and delicacy), how its color changes, the colors of the trees, sky, earth, etc. Essentially, such activity (observations) can be organized as partially search activity. The results of these observations will be visible in the drawings when children independently choose paper color, material, color, composition, etc. Individual observation tasks can be completely independent and exploratory in nature.

Thus, the method of observation can be presented, depending on the nature of the cognitive activity of children, as reproductive, heuristic, or exploratory.

There are some features of observations conducted with children of different age groups. The content of special observations carried out before classes in fine arts should be closely related to the content and objectives of the upcoming classes.

Children junior groups accept a topic if it is interesting and accessible to them

With kids, they observe phenomena, objects in their natural environment, simple in form and bright in color. As a rule, 1-2 features are isolated (for example, color and rhythm). Observations are short-term; children are not given a setting for the subsequent image, i. The teacher does not say why they are watching, since the children do not retain this task. The teacher himself determines the shape and color. Children repeat. It is very important that perception takes place in action, in movement, in play. Conversation-conversation should be relaxed, take place in a joyful playful atmosphere.

Example: The theme for the image is “Dandelions in the meadow.” Children of the first junior group can draw dandelions with rhythmic yellow strokes on green paper (“clearing”).

Observing dandelions can be a daily activity and interesting for children. The teacher brings the kids to the lawn where many dandelions have grown. The kids run all over the clearing (this is important for the feeling of space, for the subsequent meaningful perception and development of a green sheet of paper as the space of a lawn, a meadow on which dandelions will “grow”). The children look and are surprised; it turns out that dandelions grow everywhere. It is useful to show where they grow with a rhythmic movement of the hand, emphasizing the rhythm of the location with the words: “And here, and here, and here. Another dandelion, another..." This gesture and word will be useful to the teacher when stimulating rhythmic visual actions (rhythmic application of spot strokes on a sheet of paper).

You should pay attention to the color of dandelions and grass; the teacher admires this beauty, showing an example of an emotional attitude towards nature. Of course, kids will certainly touch and smell dandelions. You can play with dandelions: cover the heads with your hands, and then “bloom” in the sun, “bask” in the sun, etc. Poems and songs about this spring miracle will come in handy.

In 2 younger group children can already draw dandelions, depicting the heads as a round spot or outlining and painting the outline; some can already convey the elementary structure - the stem. Therefore, you can include an element of examination in your observation: use a gesture to outline the heads of dandelions, small and large, with your finger. You can pay attention to the thick and juicy grass where dandelions have not grown. Otherwise, the observation will change little, but the drawings will be made in a different way. Kids, on their own initiative, can complement the image.

With kids middle group observation may be longer. It is necessary to highlight several features: color, shape, structure, location in space. Children of this age are ready to answer questions (of a reproductive and search nature), basic comparisons and generalizations. It is possible to organize repeated observation with more complex content and methods of cognition.

Example (same). Children's attention can be drawn to the structure of dandelions. They independently determine the round shape of the head and the thin stalk. With the help of leading questions, the teacher examines the leaves. You can draw the attention of preschoolers to the variety of dandelions: large and small, with straight and bent stems, just blossomed and already turned into white balls, flying around, etc. It is important to consider the insects that have chosen flowers and lawns, etc. Children's drawings acquire personality traits due to composition, expressive details and additions, and diversity in the depiction of dandelions. At the end of the observation, you can tell the children about the upcoming drawing, advising them to capture the beauty that will soon pass, “fly around,” and they will have to wait for such a miracle until next spring.

Older children are already capable of accepting the goal of observation associated with the subsequent image (it is advisable to communicate the goal after the preschoolers’ emotional perception of the beauty of nature). It is necessary to give the child the opportunity to see sunny spring flowers right away, in a combination of colors. It is advisable to help children “throw out” their feelings and express themselves. If this is difficult for children, the teacher needs to show his attitude, attract children to empathy, encourage them to search for words, images, comparisons to express feelings. After this, offer to draw a spring landscape, flowers in the meadow, so that people can admire this miracle at any time of the year.

Older children are able to more consciously and actively perceive a phenomenon, notice hidden internal connections, dependencies, individual characteristics behind external changes, and express this in words. Taking into account more complex image tasks, with older preschoolers you can examine objects (combinations thereof) close and from a distance, compare by size, establish their relative location in space: closer to us, further, to the right, to the left, etc. In observations with older preschoolers, you can form a visual representation. To do this, highlighting some expressive features of objects, you can invite the children to think about how they can draw it, what material is best to use, what color of paper is more suitable. At the moment of observation, it is advisable to plan the future drawing. For example, the theme “Dandelions in the meadow” or “Spring blooming meadow”. Children come up with the composition of the drawing and highlight the main thing in it. Accordingly, you have to think about how wide the strip of green meadow and strip of sky will be. Preschoolers think about how, what colors and materials are best to paint the spring sky and green meadow. Maybe watercolor on a damp background, maybe colored wax crayons, etc.

It is recommended to carry out repeated observations (group and individual). Moreover individual observations are subject to individual intentions, which the teacher forms in children in advance. Knowing, albeit in general terms, the intentions of the children, the teacher directs them to individual or joint observations with their parents. In older groups, observation is closely connected with the act of planning (the idea is built on the basis of observations).

21. The essence and specificity of the organization of the survey in different types of productive activities.

Examination method was developed by researchers on the problem of sensory education of preschool children.

Survey - purposeful analytical-synthetic perception of an object by tactile-motor and visual means.

You can examine toys, household items (house, bridge), nature (trees, bushes, flowers, animals). When depicting a person, you can examine a toy-doll, you can examine the figures of children (on a walk, gymnastics), etc.

An examination is a purposeful examination of an object that needs to be depicted.

The survey is used when there are difficulties in depicting individual objects, but survey skills must also be taught, so the survey can act simultaneously as:

Teaching method;

Learning Objective.

The meaning of the survey is in the formation of a pictorial representation ( those. representation of the future image and ways to create it).

After all, the order of the examination coincides with the sequence of the image, and the examination gestures not only help to isolate the features of the form, but by the nature of the movement they coincide with the shaping pictorial movements (how we outline a round shape along the contour - so we draw, how we wrap it around, feel the three-dimensional shape with our fingers - we sculpt ).

During the examination, the following occurs:

· Isolation and explanation external signs,

Comparison of objects on these grounds,

Establishing and explaining similarities

· Generalization

This allows you to form a generalized idea of a group of similar items. On the basis of generalized representations, a generalized way of depicting objects of the same type is also formed.

Survey structure

Survey can be divided into three distinct phases.

First stage- a holistic emotional perception of an object through some expressive feature.

For example, a fluffy, soft kitten (toy), an important proud goose (papier-mâché toy); ripe, tasty beautiful apple. Or: “Here is a fox running, a red-haired sister, waving her tail, looking in all directions ...” (toy).

Or children look at trucks. You might ask: what kind of car is this? How did you guess? This technique allows you to isolate the most characteristic feature an object and connect it with its function and purpose.

The meaning of the first stage of examining the depicted object is that preschoolers need to evoke a feeling of surprise, admiration, admiration, curiosity, etc. depending on the nature of the subject.

Second phase - analytical perception of the subject, i.e. sequential selection of pictorial features, parts and properties of the subject.

The order of such selection and definition corresponds to the sequence of the image.

Therefore, the approximate sequence of analysis is as follows:

1. The largest part of the object and its purpose are identified and named.

2. Determine the shape of this part. If possible, they find out the dependence of the form on the function (purpose), living conditions (why the fish is oval, why trucks have a rectangular, long body).

3. Determine the position of this part in space (why this pine has a clumsy, even forked trunk, while others have a slender one).

4. Then, another (sufficiently large) part is isolated and its position, shape, and size are determined in relation to the main one.

5. A color is distinguished if its image is involuntary, but is performed in accordance with nature.

Third stage - holistic emotional perception of the subject, as if uniting the emerging representation into a holistic image.

In the structure of the survey (analysis), it is often used examining gesture of the teacher and children, which helps to isolate the form and its features. Tracing a finger along the contour of an object organizes visual perception, the gaze first accompanies, then directs the movement of the finger. Besides, the drawing of the surveying gesture coincides with the shaping movement produced during the image.

The older the children, the more the word can be used to control their actions: “Wrap your arms around, touch with your fingers like this (shows a gesture).”

An examining gesture is accompanied by a word that determines the direction, nature of the movement, and ultimately determines the shape. For example, “the finger“ runs ”on the ringlet, does not stop anywhere - a round ringlet. That’s how it started rolling, it doesn’t stop.” Or: “The goose has a long neck and a rounded breast.”

The examining gesture changes in different types of visual activity.

Observation is a purposeful, systematic perception of objects in cognition

which the individual is interested in is the most developed form

intentional perception. Surveillance is characterized by great activity

personality.

A person does not perceive everything that catches his eye, but isolates

the most important and interesting for him. Differentiating objects, the observer

organizes perception in such a way that these objects do not slip out of the field

activities.

The systematic nature of goal-directed perception allows us to trace

phenomenon in development, note its qualitative, quantitative, periodic

changes. Active thinking included in observation helps to separate the main thing

from the minor, the important from the accidental, helps to more clearly differentiate

items. Perception, attention, thinking and speech are combined when observed in

a single process of mental activity.

The act of observation reveals the extreme stability of the arbitrary

attention. It allows the observer to produce for a long time

observation, and, if necessary, repeat it repeatedly.

Observation reveals the inner activity of the individual. It is closely related to

characteristics of the human mind, feelings and will. However, their ratio in observation

will be different depending on the objectives of the observation, on the qualities of the observer himself.

Therefore, in some cases, observation will be predominantly intellectual.

expressiveness, and in others – emotional or volitional aspiration.

When a person studies the development of a phenomenon or notes changes in objects

perception, then the need for observation arises. Observation begins with

problem setting. Based on the emerging observation tasks, a detailed

plan for its implementation. This makes it possible to foresee various aspects of the observed

phenomena, avoid chance, spontaneity of perception.

Observation presupposes the preliminary preparation of the observer, the presence of

certain knowledge, skills, mastery of work methods.

Observation is the ability to notice characteristic, but barely noticeable features.

objects and phenomena. It is acquired in the process of systematic training in any

business and therefore is associated with the development of professional interests of the individual.

The relationship of observation and observation reflects the relationship between mental

processes and personality traits. Cultivating observation as an independent

mental activity and as a method of cognition of reality is the basis

development of observation as a personality trait.

General characteristics of perception

Perception as action

Types of perception

Basic properties of perception

General characteristics of perception

Perception (perception) is the reflection in the human mind of objects and phenomena in the totality of their properties and parts with their direct impact on the senses.

In the course of perception, there is an ordering and unification of individual sensations into integral images of things and events. Unlike sensations, which reflect the individual properties of the stimulus, perception reflects the object as a whole, in the aggregate of its properties. Perception is associated with awareness, understanding, comprehension of objects, phenomena, with their assignment to a certain category according to the corresponding signs, grounds. Only by including an object or phenomenon in a certain system, covering it with an appropriate concept, can we correctly interpret it.

Thus, perception acts as a meaningful (including decision-making), meaningful (associated with speech) synthesis of various sensations received from integral objects or complex phenomena perceived as a whole. Since perception is a sensory stage of cognition, it is associated with thinking, has a motivational orientation, and is accompanied by an emotional response. It is on the basis of perception that the activity of memory, thinking, and imagination is possible. Human perception is a necessary prerequisite and condition of his life and practical activities.

Perception as action

Perception is a kind of action aimed at examining the perceived object and creating its copy, similarity.

Perception is a complex cognitive activity, including a whole system of perceptual actions that make it possible to detect an object of perception, identify it, measure it, and evaluate it (Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. Perceptual actions

Their composition depends on the degree of meaningfulness of perception, i.e. from the understanding of what is perceived, and from the nature of the perceptual task facing the person, i.e. on why and for what purpose a person watches or listens to this moment.

Types of perception

Highlight different kinds perception (Fig. 2).

Intentional perception x characterized by the fact that it is based on a consciously set goal. It is associated with the volitional efforts of a person.

It is known that one of the forms of intentional perception is observation - a deliberate, purposeful, systematic, systematic and long-term perception of objects and phenomena of reality, people and oneself.

Rice. 2. Classification of perception

The specialist performing the observation must take into account the peculiarities of the individual type of perception (analytical, synthetic, analytical-synthetic, emotional). So, for observers of the synthetic type, a generalized reflection and definition of the main meaning of what is happening are characteristic. They don't see the details because they don't attach importance to them.

People of the analytical type tend to highlight, when observing, first of all, details, particulars, but understanding the general meaning of phenomena causes great difficulties for them. They often replace the general idea of an object, an event with a thorough analysis of individual actions, details, while being unable to single out the main thing.

People of the emotional type of perception strive to quickly express their experiences caused by observed phenomena, but they are unable to highlight its essence. A person of this type of perception, observing an object, first of all notices what affects his emotional sphere, and does not try to understand the characteristics of the object itself.

Unintentional perception- this is a perception in which objects of the surrounding reality are perceived without a specifically set task, when the process of perception is not associated with the volitional efforts of a person.

Organized perception(observation) is an organized, purposeful, systematic perception of objects or phenomena of the surrounding world.

Disorganized Perception- This is an unintentional perception of the surrounding reality.

Simultaneous perception- one-act.

Successive perception– step-by-step, sequential.

Person's perception by person(social perception) is an extremely complex phenomenon. There are usually two aspects to it: cognitive(cognitive) - the ability to understand by external manifestation what a person is like, to penetrate into the depth of his personality, individuality and emotional– the ability to determine by external behavioral signs the emotional state in which a person is at the moment, the ability to empathize, or empathy.

A person's perception of a person is of significant importance in testimony. Depending on the importance people attach to various personality traits, they relate to each other differently, experience different feelings, and when testifying, they bring to the fore certain individual aspects of the other person.

Perception of space plays an important role in human interaction with environment, is a necessary condition for a person’s orientation in it. It is a reflection of objectively existing space and includes the perception of the shape, size and relative position of objects, their relief, distance and direction in which they are located (Fig. 3).

Rice. 3. Perception of space

The perception of shape, volume and size of objects is carried out using visual, tactile and kinesthetic analyzers. The perception of shape requires isolating the object from the background, and this, in turn, often requires isolating the contour, i.e. boundaries of spatial elements of a figure that differ in brightness, color, texture.

The perceived size of objects is determined by the size of their image on the retina and the distance from the observer’s eyes. Adaptation of the eye to a clear vision of objects at different distances is carried out using two mechanisms: accommodation (changing the refractive power of the lens by changing its curvature) and convergence (bringing together the visual axes on the fixed object).

The perception of depth and distance of objects is carried out in the form of monocular and binocular vision. Monocular vision (using one eye due to changes in the thickness of its lens) allows you to correctly estimate distances, although within very limited limits. The perception of depth and distance of objects is carried out mainly through binocular vision (using two eyes) and its accompanying convergence.

As objects move away from the observer, their image on the retina decreases. An example of linear perspective is the apparent convergence in the distance of parallel rails of a railway, etc. Aerial perspective is that the light and color reflected by objects are to a certain extent distorted under the influence of layers of air.

The phenomena of erroneous or distorted perception are called illusions of perception. Illusions are observed in any type of perception (visual, auditory, etc.). The nature of illusions is determined not only by subjective reasons, such as direction, attitude, emotional attitude, etc., but also by physical factors and phenomena.

Perception of time there is a reflection of the duration, the sequence of the phenomena of reality, as well as the pace and rhythm (Fig. 4).

Rice. 4. Perception of time

Reflecting the objective reality, the perception of time gives a person the opportunity to navigate in the environment. The basis of the perception of time is the rhythmic change of excitation and inhibition. Its dynamics constitute the physiological basis of the perception of time. The perception of the sequence of phenomena is based on their clear division and the objectively existing replacement of some phenomena by others, and is also associated with ideas about the present. Once a phenomenon is perceived, it remains in memory as an idea of it. If it is then re-perceived, then this perception evokes in our memory the idea of the former, which is recognized as the past.

The perception of the sequence of events is influenced by a number of factors:

perceptual attitude of the subject, expressed in his readiness to perceive events;

objective ordering of events, manifested in the natural organization of stimuli;

the ordering of events by the subject himself using a certain sequence of events that have some signs that are significant for the subject.

The perception of time changes depending on the emotional state. Positive emotions give the illusion of a fast passage of time, negative ones - subjectively stretch time intervals somewhat.

The perception of tempo is a reflection of the speed with which individual stimuli succeed each other in a process taking place in time.

The perception of rhythm is a reflection of the uniform alternation of stimuli, their regularity when objects and phenomena of objective reality act on our senses. The perception of rhythm is usually accompanied by motor accompaniment. The sense of rhythm is basically motor in nature.

Motion perception is a reflection of the change in the position that objects occupy in space (Fig. 5).

Rice. 5. Motion perception

The main role in the perception of movement is played by visual and kinesthetic analyzers. The parameters of an object's movement are speed, direction and acceleration. Observing the movement, first of all, they perceive its nature (flexion, extension, repulsion, etc.); shape (rectilinear, curvilinear, circular, etc.); amplitude (full, incomplete); direction (right, left, up, down); speed (fast or slow movement); acceleration (uniform, accelerating, decelerating, intermittent movement).

Observation is purposeful, systematic, systematic perception the process of development of objects and phenomena in the form in which they exist in nature and society in natural conditions. Scientific observation is characterized by: a concept, a predetermined plan, a specific goal, the use of special tools and measuring instruments, keeping records, etc. Observation does not involve intervention in the process being studied. This drawback can be overcome through experiment.

An experiment is a purposeful study of a phenomenon under specially created and precisely taken into account conditions, when it is possible to monitor the course of its change and actively influence it using various means. In the process of conducting an experiment, various devices, tools, special devices, and computer technology are widely used.

The experiment can be repeated, this is a more effective method scientific research, allowing us to study not only what immediately catches the eye, but also what is often hidden in the depths of the phenomenon.

There are two main types of experiments: full-scale and model. If in the first case the object being studied is in natural conditions, which change in accordance with a certain program, then in the second case the real object is replaced by a model.

Scientific facts obtained through observation and experiment are subjected to analysis and synthesis. Analysis is the mental division of the subject being studied into its component elements in order to study its structure and internal connections. Synthesis is the process of mentally connecting the parts of an object dissected during analysis, establishing the interaction and connections of the parts and understanding this object as a single whole. In order to study an aircraft, you must first become thoroughly familiar with each of its systems (fuel, air, hydraulic, oxygen, electrical, etc.) separately, and then comprehend it all as a whole.

Analysis and synthesis are closely related, mutually presuppose and complement each other. Otherwise, they lose their cognitive value.

Comparison is one of the universal operations that allows you to establish the differences between similar and similarities between different

objects, their properties and relationships through the use of a number of abstractions.

Abstraction is the mental isolation of individual signs, properties and connections of a particular object that interest us in order to understand them in a “pure” form (in abstraction from other signs, properties and connections). The objective basis of abstraction is the relative independence of the properties, aspects and connections of objects, which allows them to be mentally isolated. There is a generalization mental highlighting similar (common) features, properties and connections inherent in the class of objects under consideration. As a rule, essential properties and connections are generalized and on the basis of this there is a transition from the individual to the general, from the less general to the more general.

Abstraction and generalization are quite often used together with historical and logical methods. The historical method is a mental reproduction of the emergence, development and death of a specific object in certain conditions and details, This method reveals the sequence of formation and development of the subject being studied. The logical method is a generalized reflection of the historical development of a subject in its essential, necessary connections and relationships. The logical is the corrected, cleansed of accidents, the historical, which has absorbed the universal.

Both of these methods are in dialectical unity, since the historical method is unthinkable without a certain logical generalization, and the logical method of research, carried out in accordance with the laws that the actual historical process itself gives, is nothing more than the same historical method, only freed from the historical form and from interfering accidents.

Methods of formalization and modeling play a major role in scientific knowledge. Formalization is a way of mentally connecting objects of different content based on the similarity of their forms. In other words, the shape of an object becomes an independent object of study, on the basis of which one can discover the similarities of objects with different contents. The use of special symbols in the formalization process makes it possible to briefly and unambiguously record the acquired knowledge in the form of certain signs. This is especially valuable in the process of using a computer.

Concretization and interpretation are operations opposite to abstraction and formalization, providing a transition from abstract concepts and definitions to concrete objects, from abstract schemes to their objective meaning.

Modeling is a material or mental reproduction of the properties, functions and connections of the object under study on a specially created model for the purpose of studying it. A model is an object that is similar in certain respects to the original and serves as a means of recording known and obtaining new information about the subject being studied. Modeling is used not only as a means of obtaining new information about the subject being studied, but also as a means of testing hypotheses in science.

2. System of general scientific methods

Observation is a purposeful, planned, systematic perception of the process of development of objects and phenomena in the form in which they exist in nature and society under natural conditions. Scientific observation is characterized by: an idea, a pre-developed plan, a specific goal, the use of special means and measuring instruments, keeping records, etc. Observation does not involve intervention in the process being studied. This drawback can be overcome through experiment.

The experiment can be repeated; it is a more effective method of scientific research, allowing one to study not only what immediately catches the eye, but also what is often hidden in the depths of the phenomenon.

Analysis and synthesis are closely related, mutually presuppose and complement each other. Otherwise, they lose their cognitive value.

Comparison is one of the universal operations that allows you to establish the differences between similar and similarities between different

objects, their properties and relationships through the use of a number of abstractions.

Abstraction is the mental isolation of individual signs, properties and connections of a particular object that interest us in order to understand them in a “pure” form (in abstraction from other signs, properties and connections). The objective basis of abstraction is the relative independence of the properties, aspects and connections of objects, which allows them to be mentally isolated. Generalization is the mental identification of similar (common) features, properties and connections inherent in the class of objects under consideration. As a rule, essential properties and connections are generalized and on the basis of this there is a transition from the individual to the general, from the less general to the more general.

Abstraction and generalization are quite often used together with historical and logical methods. The historical method is a mental reproduction of the emergence, development and death of a specific subject under certain conditions and details. This method reveals the sequence of formation and development of the subject being studied. The logical method is a generalized reflection of the historical development of a subject in its essential, necessary connections and relationships. The logical is the corrected, cleansed of accidents, the historical, which has absorbed the universal.

Conclusion

Currently, mathematical methods for understanding economic phenomena are widely used in scientific knowledge. Thus, mathematical methods of operations research (probability theory, linear and dynamic programming, game theory, queuing, etc.) make it possible to take into account a large number of different factors in the process of making an optimal decision in economic life.

A system of methods is formed not only by links of subordination, but also by links of coordination between methods. According to the functions performed and application features (coordination), all methods are distributed into several mutually coordinated groups:

a) historical and logical;

b) empirical and theoretical;

c) full-scale and model;

d) qualitative and quantitative, etc.

Each of these paired groups of methods complements each other, and together they provide a comprehensive, holistic display of the object. This problem can be seen using a diagram.

So, firstly, in philosophical literature there is no identity of points of view on the essence of methodology, the classification of methods of cognition, the relationship between method and theory, the relationship between the objective and subjective aspects of the method. From our point of view, methodology should be understood as a system of initial, fundamental principles that determine the method of approach to the analysis and assessment of phenomena, the nature of the attitude towards them, the nature and direction of cognitive and practical activity. Methodology is the study of method. By method we mean a path, a way of cognition and practical transformation of reality.

Bibliography

1. Alekseev P.V., Panin A.V. “Philosophy” M.: Prospekt, 2000

2. Leshkevich T.G. “Philosophy of Science: Traditions and Innovations” M.: PRIOR, 2001

3. Spirkin A.G. “Fundamentals of Philosophy” M.: Politizdat, 1988

4. “Philosophy” under. ed. Kokhanovsky V.P. Rostov-n/D.: Phoenix, 2000

5 Agofonov V.P., Kazakov D.F., Rachinsky D.D. “Philosophy” M.: MSHA, 2000

6 Frolov I.T. “Introduction to Philosophy” Part-2, M.: Politizdat, 1989

7 Ruzavin G.I. “Methodology of scientific research” M.: UNITY-DANA, 1999.

8. Gonchar L.F. “Philosophy” Moscow 2002.

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The very first reliable judgment (“the basis of fundamentals”, “the ultimate truth”) according to Descartes is Cogito - a thinking substance. It is revealed to us directly (in contrast to material substance, which is revealed to us indirectly through sensations)...

The problem of the meaning of life in philosophy and art

“To do good and at the same time enjoy a bad reputation - there is something royal in this.” Marcus Aurelius This is how a person creates his own value system, his own worldview, his own picture of the world...

Society development

The sources of self-development of society can be seen in the interaction of three spheres of reality, three “worlds” that are not reducible to each other. Firstly, this is the world of nature and things, existing independently of the will and consciousness of man, i.e....

System of dialectical categories

The antithesis of Aristotle's metaphysical system of categories was Kant's system of categories. Aristotle drew categories from the outside, from the surrounding world - Kant from the inside, from the knowing subject...

System and methods of Hegel's philosophy

The philosophical system is divided by Hegel into three parts: 1) logic, 2) philosophy of nature, 3) philosophy of spirit. Logic, from his point of view, is a system of “pure reason” that coincides with the divine reason. However, how could Hegel know the thoughts of God...

Soloviev V.S. as the founder of the concept of unity, its essence

In the system of diverse forms of a person’s relationship to the world, an important place is occupied by knowledge or acquisition of knowledge about the world around a person, its nature and structure, patterns of development, as well as about the person himself and human society...

Physical basis of vacuum coating application

The most common classification...

Hegel's philosophical views

The philosophical system is divided by Hegel into three parts: 1) logic; 2) philosophy of nature; 3) philosophy of spirit. It is precisely in logic that Hegel’s dialectical idealism is closest to dialectical materialism...

Philosophical ideas during the “High Classics” period

The Athenian philosopher Plato (427-347 BC) was from an Athenian aristocratic family. Plato's given name is Aristocles, and Plato is called "platus" - "broad", "broad-shouldered"). An analysis of Plato's creativity shows...