Glory typewriter has already set, and yet quite recently it was truly grandiose. At the end of the last century, the typewriter had to pass the baton further - to the personal computer. But what was the first typewriter? Photos, history of invention and design features - further.
First experiences
When did the first typewriter appear? The history of the portable printing device begins long before the twentieth century. Many people together or independently in different years always came up with the idea speed dial a wide variety of texts. This happened for the first time at the beginning of the eighteenth century, namely in 1714.
Then the English Queen Anne issued an official patent to the worker of the waterworks in London, Henry Mill, for a machine in which the artificial method of imprinting letters allows each one to be placed separately and in the required order. At the same time, the text is printed on paper clearly and clearly. Unfortunately, apart from the text of the patent, nothing has been preserved.
The second typewriter was designed already in Germany in the fifties of the same century by Friedrich von Knauss. This device was not destined to become popular, the typewriter was again forgotten. Then it was Spain's turn. Around 1808, the talented mechanic Terry Pellegrino created his own typewriter. This device gave birth to love.
A touching love story
Terry Pellegrino fell in love with the lovely Countess Caroline Fantoni. The young girl suddenly became blind, but her chosen one turned out to be a faithful and rather enterprising person. For his blind beloved, Terry created the first typewriter. On it, the blind Carolina Fantoni wrote letters to her lover and composed poems.
The device worked as follows. With her fingers, the countess found a key with the necessary letter engraved on it, pressed it lightly, and the letter fell, imprinting the letter on paper through a carbon paper. After Karolina's death, the typewriter itself was lost, but several letters printed on it have survived.
First carbon paper
In the autumn of 1808, Caroline informed Terry that she was running out of paper, without which she would no longer be able to write letters to her beloved. Thus, the enterprising Italian can be considered the creator of not only the world's first typewriter, but also the prototype of modern carbon paper.
Terry Pellegrino impregnated ordinary sheets with printing ink and dried in the sun. After this touching story, various experiments on creating new versions of cars for the blind became widely known in many countries of the world. To the bitter end, the typewriter began to be invented in the USA.
American inventions
In 1829, American citizen William Austin Burt patented a typewriter for the blind called the Typograph (printer). Using a special embossing method, letter blanks left a clear mark on a thick paper tape. In 1843, Charles Tober received a patent for a printing device.
The inventor was worried about the fate of the blind. Like his predecessors, the American wanted to provide jobs for blind people who had not previously participated in any way. social life. Tober's typewriter did not find a response from manufacturers, but his invention uses the fruitful idea of \u200b\u200blever transmission of the movement of letters.
The next "first" typewriter was the invention of Samuel Francis. His 1856 typewriter had a movable carriage, and levers with letter blanks, and a ribbon soaked in special printing ink, and even a bell that warned of the end of a line.
Other inventors
So who invented the first typewriter? In the middle of the nineteenth century, another prototype of a typewriter was created by a certain Italian. He called his invention "harpsichord writing", or "keyboard writing machine". It was already a more modern device that allowed you to see the written text in the process of printing.
In 1861, a Brazilian priest created his own version of the device. Inspired by this invention, Emperor Pedro I of Brazil awarded the priest with a gold medal. The father became the real pride of the Latin American country. In Brazil, he is still considered the only inventor.
Russian writing machine
Who created the first typewriter in Russia? In 1870, Mikhail Ivanovich Alisov designed a "quick printer", or "scribe". Its purpose was to replace the calligraphic copying of manuscripts and various documents. The rapid printer turned out to be quite suitable for this, for which he received high reviews and medals at three exhibitions: in Vienna in 1873, in Philadelphia in 1876 and in Paris in 1878.
The inventor who came up with such a device was awarded a medal by the Russian Technical Society. That typewriter was very different in appearance from most devices familiar to the modern man in the street. Wax paper was used, which was then multiplied on a rotator.
QWERTY keyboard
Different types of printing presses gradually became more practical for daily use. The familiar QWERTY keyboard was invented by a certain Scholes. The inventors analyzed the compatibility of letters in English language, and QWERTY is a variant in which frequently combined letters are located as far as possible. This prevented sticky keys while typing.
Timeless classic
The classic "Underwood" appeared as early as 1895 and achieved dominance in the early twentieth century. It is the first typewriter in the world to truly become a resounding commercial success. Soon another classic model appeared. American Christopher Latham Sholes patented a device that, after several improvements, received the commercial name "Remington No. 1". These machines were mass-produced.
The Remington trade was hard until the Treasury ordered the machines. By 1910, over two million of these typewriters were in use in America. Even the writer Mark Twain purchased one printer from this series.
Serial production in Russia
In Russia, before the revolution, typewriters were not produced, but were actively used. Due to the pre-revolutionary spelling, the letters on them were located rather unusually. On portable devices, there were no numbers that were replaced with the corresponding letters (O, Z, and so on) when printed.
The first typewriter in Russia, which was mass-produced, was called Yanalif. The device was produced since 1928 in Kazan. In later times, the most common domestic brands of cars were portable "Moscow" and "Lyubava", stationery "Ukraine" and "Yatran". Of the foreign devices, "Optima" and "Robotron", "Erika" from the GDR, "Consul" from Czechoslovakia, "Olympia" from the FRG were popular.
History of the typewriter
Writing computers are relatively recent, but attempts to invent mechanical writing devices began nearly three centuries ago. In 1714, Britain's Queen Anne authorized a patent to an engineer named Henry Mill stating that he had invented "an artificial machine or method of drawing letters, either one at a time or successively one after another, as in hand writing." Unfortunately, this turned out to be easier in theory than in practice. Mill failed to build a working typewriter; a similar fate befell dozens of other inventors who tried to put the same idea into practice. This could not be done until the 60s of the last XIX century, when a newspaper editor and publisher from pcs. Wisconsin (USA) Christopher L. Sholes finally solved the problem.
There was something in the character of Sholes that brought him closer to a modern hacker. After receiving a public position as chief of customs for the Port of Milwaukee, he left the newspaper business, but often recalled the long hours spent writing and rewriting articles, when his only tool of labor was a quill pen or a steel-tipped pen. There must be more convenient way, and Sholes was determined to find him. Because the new job did not require much effort - Milwaukee was not a major international port - Sholes found enough time for his favorite pastime - technical invention. Working in a local workshop, Sholes and his companion Carlos Glidden came up with an apparatus for sequential numbering of book pages. From this simple device the typewriter originated.
Sholes patented his device in 1867. Six years later, Sholes and Glidden's typewriter began to be manufactured by Remington and Sons (Remington and Sans), a solid arms company, which later turned into Remington Rand (Remington Rand) and in 1951 began to produce and sell Univac UNIVAC, the first commercial computer in the US. After the American Civil War (1861-1865), Remington, expanding its range of products, began to produce sewing machines in addition to weapons. This was reflected in the models of typewriters: they were decorated with cheerful floral patterns and began to be mounted on the bed of a sewing machine in such a way that pressing the pedal caused a carriage return.
The first typewriter, created in 1873 by Sholes and Glidden, was attractive enough in appearance, but not very comfortable to use. With a typewriter of this design, hammers with letters hit the roller from below, and the typist could not see the typed text.
The first typewriter model had serious flaws. The typewriter was quite expensive at that time, $125, and it was possible to print on it only in capital letters. Also, since the characters driven by the keys were hidden under the carriage, the carriage had to be raised to see the printed text.
Success for the typewriter did not come immediately, but some of the first buyers rated it very highly. Among them is the former typographical compositor Samuel Clemens, who wrote books under the pseudonym of Mark Twain. Striking the keys with one finger (the blind typing system was invented a few years later), Twain typed out a letter to his brother:
"I'm trying to get used to this newfangled typewriter, but so far, it seems without much success. However, this is my first attempt, and I still think that I will soon and easily learn how to use it ... I believe that it will type faster, than I can write. she fits a lot of words on one page. she writes clearly, does not smear or plant ink blots."
Mark Twain
And a few years later, Mark Twain was the first of the writers to submit a typewritten manuscript to the publishing house. (According to the memoirs of Twain himself, it was The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, but historians have established that it was Life on the Mississippi.) Twain became so fascinated with mechanical devices for typing and typesetting that he later invested $ 300 thousand in a typesetting machine. It turned out to be impractical - and Twain went bankrupt.
Other companies soon came out with their own types of typewriters, including those that made it possible to see printed text immediately, as well as case-shifting models that could be typed in both lowercase and uppercase letters. The effectiveness of the improved models and the fact that they “do not smear or plant ink blots” eventually dispelled all entrepreneurial doubts, and the typewriter became a common tool.
One of the stubborn opponents of the new technology was the developing company Sears Roebuck, which traded by mail order. The company management felt that typewritten letters were too impersonal, and even after the typewriter became widespread in the 90s of the 19th century, company secretaries continued to write all correspondence by hand so as not to offend the feelings of their traditional farm clientele with newfangled "machine" letters.
The typewriter not only revolutionized office work, but also changed the composition of office workers. By providing women with acceptable social relations an occupation other than housework, the typewriter became a powerful tool for their emancipation, opening doors to where previously only men worked. The typewriter, Christopher Sholes remarked shortly before his death in 1890, “apparently has been a blessing to all mankind, especially to the female half of it. My invention turned out to be much wiser than I could have imagined.”
However, women soon began to realize that they had freed themselves from the kitchen stove only to become slaves to the typewriter. This device did not forgive mistakes: it was enough to accidentally press the wrong key and the entire page had to be retyped. The advent of the electric typewriter in the 1920s did not solve the problem. It worked faster and was more comfortable for the fingers, but still one accidental hit on the wrong key inevitably caused errors.
Photos of the first typewriters
When the first computers appeared after World War II, modified typewriters naturally began to be used to print the output of the central processing unit. Approximately ten years later they were already used for data preparation. However, the problem of errors and the tedious retyping associated with them remained, which looked even more annoying against the background of the high speed of the computer's central processor.
Chinese typewriter?
Did the Chinese have something similar to a European typewriter?
After all, there are thousands of characters in Chinese. Before the invention of the computer, all documentation was drawn up manually, with the help of clerks, connoisseurs of hieroglyphs?
Artificial intelligence August 01, 2010 (rev. 1.08.2010 20:30) replied: 90 50
Chinese typewriter MingKwai, 1946:
Shuangge typewriter:
It allowed typing 30,000 hieroglyphs, but at the same time - only 3,000 - so many hieroglyphs fit in the tray of the machine, the rest were stored separately. The operator placed the "scanner" over the desired hieroglyph, the hammer grabbed the bar with the hieroglyph and hit it on the paper.
And here is the Japanese Nippon SH-280, 1929:
I printed 2400 hieroglyphs. The operator moved mechanical system over the desired hieroglyph and by pressing the handle actuated the "foot", which grabbed the bar with the hieroglyph and printed it on a sheet of paper.
The complexity of classical Chinese writing is illustrated by the structure of the Chinese typewriter.
The drum (tray) contains more than 2000 symbols, with several thousand more available in other drums (there is information that there are about 5700 symbols in total). The typist first aligns the drum, then presses the key, which collects the required character and makes an impression on the paper opposite. The machine can print vertically and horizontally.
SOURCE: David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language, (Cambridge: Cmabridge University Press, 1987), p. 31
In the next picture - "improved", "cool" Chinese typewriter, the latest model of '47. :) In it, each hieroglyph is printed component by component - the upper, middle and lower parts. The buttons are much smaller, but it has a very complex mechanism and difficult management.
The width of the keyboard is about one meter, on which prints with hieroglyphs (letters) that were previously in the box are placed. Naturally, the most popular words used in print are located on the canvas. Such as "Mao", "Peace", "Labor", "May" are located closer to the center. Accordingly, the closer to the edge of the canvas, the less popular the hieroglyph. Disused waiting in the box. Before printing a hieroglyph, the operator needs to find it with a magnifying glass. And only then, fixing it on the holder, transfer the image to paper. The fastest and most professional typists achieve typing speeds of only 11 words per minute.
Nippon Typewriter Co. began producing typewriters with Chinese and Japanese characters in 1917. "Nippon has a flat bed of 3,000 Japanese characters. This is considered sufficient for shorthand, as the Japanese language contains over 30,000 characters." (Thomas A. Russo, Office Collectibles: 100 Years of Business Technology, Schiffer, 2000, p. 161.) The successor company, Nippon Remington Rand Kaisha, made similar machines in the 1970s.
To use a typewriter, the paper must be wrapped around a cylindrical rubber roller that moves on rollers over a bed of type. The operator uses a level to control the an arm, which picks up the pieces of the metal symbol from the stock, makes an impression on paper, and returns them to their niches.
So - if you:
- you can't force yourself to work;
- if everything around you annoys;
- if you think only about how to get home early;
- even if you just Bad mood -
JUST THINK OF THE CHINESE TYPIST!!!
History of creation
Like most other technical devices and inventions, the development of a mechanism typewriter was not the result of the efforts of one single person. Many people jointly or independently came up with the idea fast printing texts. The first patent for a machine of this kind was issued by Queen Anne of England to Henry Mill. Henry Mill) back in 1714. The inventor patented not only the machine, but also a method for sequentially printing characters on paper. Unfortunately, any detailed information there is no record of his invention. Also, information about the actual creation and use of the described machine has not been preserved.
It wasn't until almost 100 years later that people became interested in the possibility of doing fast printing again. Around 1808 Pellegrino Turri ( Pellegrino Turri), also known as the inventor of carbon paper, creates his own printing press. Details about his invention are unknown today, but the texts printed on this device have survived to this day.
Alisov's speed printer
The machine did not become popular due to High Quality print. When the first production batch of machines made in England was received in 1877, they were equated with printing machines, and everything that was printed on them had to be censored. This was due to the fact that she gave prints of excellent quality, completely similar to typographic ones. Due to mandatory censorship, no one wanted to purchase these typewriters, and the inventor had to open his own institution for printing lectures, which lasted a very short time.
In pre-revolutionary Russia, typewriters were not produced, but were used. However, due to the peculiarities of pre-revolutionary spelling, the placement of the keys was somewhat different from the current one. So, in the place where the letter “C” is now, “I” was placed, and in the place “A” - “b”, since then this letter was used very often, at the end of all words ending in a consonant. The letters "C" and "E" were located in the uppermost "digital" row after the number "0". The bottom row was slightly shifted to the left, because after the letters "I" and "H" in place of the current key "C" there was a key with the letter "ѣ", "C" was the next key. The first typewriter in our country was produced in 1928 in Kazan, it was called "Yanalif". At a later time, the most common domestic brands of typewriters in the USSR were "Ukraine" (stationery) and "Moscow" (portable). Of the foreign ones, Optima (GDR, stationery) and Consul (Czechoslovakia, portable) were quite widespread. However, in terms of prevalence, typewriters were significantly inferior to computers.
The world's last typewriter factory closed in 2011.
Design features
Most typewriter designs can be classified into one of two main types. The most widespread are lever-segment typewriters, in which the imprint occurs as a result of hitting the paper with letter levers located in the slots of the segment. The second type includes segmentless typewriters, which use a type head instead of levers; machines of this type include machines Hammond, IBM Selectric, Yatran. There is also a division into mechanical, electric typewriters. In addition, squeaking machines were divided into stationery and portable. Stationery machines were operated, as a rule, in stationary conditions. Portable machines were placed in a small suitcase and were intended for people " creative professions» (journalists, writers, etc.). Some portable typewriters had smaller print than stationery typewriters. Stationery and typewriters also differed in the number of keys, which for Russian typewriters could range from 42 to 46. The reduction in the number of keys was achieved by abandoning the key with the letter "", using the homography of some letters and numbers (instead of the number "" the letter " could be used ”, instead of “ ” - “ ”), and some other abbreviations. On stationery typewriters, printing was allowed along the wide side of an A4 sheet and, accordingly, A3 format, on portable typewriters - only along the narrow side of an A4 sheet.
Carriage
paper transport mechanism
Printing mechanism
Improvements
Two color ribbon allowed to print, if necessary, other than black. The color changer could completely turn off the rise of the tape, and the machine switched to colorless printing, for example, to create an inscription on the foil.
Electric typewriter "IBM Selectric", 1961
AT electric typewriter the blow is produced by an electric drive, which allows you to press the keys with little effort; in addition, it is possible to print a series of identical characters by simply holding down the key. In general, the printing speed is higher, but only when using a blind ten-finger printing method.
AT printing machine simultaneously with the printing of the text, perforation of the punched tape is performed, which allows you to collect a kind of library of standard documents - the printing machine can then print the text from the punched tape; in addition, by cutting and gluing punched tape, you can "edit" the typed text.
AT type-setting machine uses proportional rather than fixed font; in addition, a carbon paper ribbon is used instead of an ink ribbon. The result is a very crisp typographic-looking text that can be photographically produced printing forms, thus avoiding the traditional typing process.
Multi-keyboard typewriter in fact, it consists of several typewriters placed side by side and connected so that the carriage can move from one typewriter to another. This allows you to print, for example, alternately in Latin and Cyrillic. Because of the bulkiness, they were rarely used - usually the text in the "foreign" alphabet was entered by hand.
design typewriter used for drawing inscriptions on drawings; usually mounted on a drawing board ruler.
Application
For a significant part of the 20th century, almost all official documents emanating from state institutions (and their internal document flow) were typewritten. At the same time, in the USSR, statements, receipts and autobiographies of citizens were written by hand; protocols were often drawn up by hand. Also, publishing houses required to bring manuscripts in typewritten form, which greatly facilitated the work of typesetters, who now did not need to parse the often incomprehensible handwriting of the authors.
Reprinting handwritten texts on a typewriter was the work of special workers - typists (since the profession was predominantly female, the male version of the term did not take root); earlier they were also called Remingtonists or Remingtonists (after the brand of Remington typewriters). The work of printing documents on typewriters was called typewriting and was carried out in special organizations or departments (“typing bureaus”).
Since the last third of the 20th century Computer techologies typewriters began to be replaced. Today, computers (with appropriate peripherals) have completely taken over the functions of typewriters, which are thus hopelessly outdated.
Typescript
Typewritten text has characteristic features:
- due to a limited set of characters, some characters were combined - for example, left and right quotes are not distinguished, hyphen and dash are combined.
All this made it possible to simplify the design of the typewriter.
Font "Courier"
When creating teletypes and computer printers, these features were repeated - also in order to simplify the hardware and software. Many early word processors (e.g. Lexicon, ChiWriter) were designed to imitate typewritten text - in part because the formatting of many documents was regulated state standards created in the era of typewriters.
Used as the default monospaced fonts on many operating systems, the computer fonts in the Courier family are based on the typewriter font. In addition, there are designer fonts that mimic "dirty" text printed on a real typewriter (for example, "Trixie").
Mechanical typewriters made it possible to receive text with different line spacing: single, one and a half, double, etc. The concept of line spacing is currently used in word processors. In the normative documents and standards governing the design of text documents, the concept of “typewriter spacing” (“typewriter spacing”) is still used, which is numerically equal to the distance between baselines divided by the character height.
see also
Notes
- Andrey Velichko The era of typewriters is over. Compulenta (April 26, 2011). Retrieved December 12, 2011.
- Oden, Charles Vonley (1917) "Evolution of the Typewriter", New York: Printed by J. E. Hetsch, pp. 17-22 ,
- Kupriyanov Alexey Black rectangle. Copy paper is 200 years old. Polit.ru(October 20, 2006). Archived
- V. V. Lermantov Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron. - St. Petersburg. - T. 23A. - S. 753-754.
- Goizman Shimon Ruvimovich. Mikhail Ivanovich Alisov is the inventor of the typesetting machine. Archived from the original on August 26, 2011. Retrieved April 30, 2010.
- The world's last typewriter factory has closed in India. Gazeta.ru (April 26, 2011). Archived from the original on August 26, 2011. Retrieved April 26, 2011.
- Berezin B.I. Typing tutorial. - M .: Light industry, 1969. - 160 p. - 70,000 copies.
- Typist // / Ed. D. N. Ushakova. - M .: Soviet Encyclopedia; OGIZ; , 1935-1940.
- Remingtonist // Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language: In 4 volumes / Ed. D. N. Ushakova. - M .: Soviet Encyclopedia; OGIZ; State publishing house of foreign and national dictionaries, 1935-1940.
- The shift of the next line relative to the previous one was carried out automatically during the so-called "carriage return" - the transition to printing the next line, produced by moving a special lever. Typically, the interval could be manually adjusted by turning the paper feed roller.
Links
| Typewriters | |
|---|---|
| Manufacturers | Brother E. Remington and Sons IBM Imperial Typewriter Company Oliver Typewriter Company Olivetti Royal Typewriter Company Smith Corona Underwood Typewriter Company Kazan Typewriter Plant 1st State Typewriter Plant Ufa plant Typewriters Kirovohrad Plant of Typewriters |
| Models | Blickensderfer typewriter Data Recall Diamond Hansen Writing Ball IBM Selectric typewriter Schwalls and Glidden typewriter Yatran Lubava |
| Prominent figures | Lucien Stephen Crandall · James Densmore · Carlos Glidden · Rasmus Malling-Hansen · Henry Mill · Clarence Seamans · Christopher Scholes · James Fields Smathers · Samuel W. Soule · Kyota Sugimoto |
| Related concepts | Platen · |
How would you behave in the place of the old king, whose heirs began to die one after another? Would you be more accommodating at the negotiating table? The question is complex, and everyone solves it in their own way. "King-sun" went to the negotiations. In 1713, the Peace of Utrecht was concluded, which devalued eleven years of French struggle. And then the heirs to the French throne stopped dying...
Louis XV double louis d'or 1764, gold
The heir was a five-year-old baby, the great-grandson of the "Sun King", the future Louis XV. A Dauphin child under a seventy-four-year-old king who could die of old age at any moment. Die king - who will help, who will protect the child? The French state would have been in a very vulnerable position if it were not for the handsome twenty-eight-year-old Duke of Berry, the second grandson of Louis XIV, the uncle of the heir. The aged king made him responsible for the fate of the country and the infant king. And... Yes, that's right. The Duke of Berry also soon died. He was injured while hunting and hit the saddle pommel with all his might.
Usually they write: fell from a horse and crashed. It looks like he broke his neck or spine. But it's not. The unfortunate Duke of Berry died on May 4, 1714, after a "four days' illness". Now they write that the cause of death is "internal injuries after a fall from a horse." How could this happen? It could have been, if another participant in the turbulent politics of that time had not died in a similar way, also falling from a horse ...
After an accident with his grandson, Louis XIV lost interest in life. Fearing further "accidents", he even changed the law. Until then, only children born to the queen were heirs to the throne. Louis XIV had several illegitimate children. The king legitimized them and placed them in the hierarchy of the royal house after the princes of the blood. A couple of months later, Louis XIV specifically stipulated the following: in the event of the suppression of the legitimate family, the newly-born princes could take the throne. He knew who was destroying his family, and he understood that the series of deaths was not accidental, and it could continue.
In 1715, the "Sun King" died. It seemed like the end of the story. But in reality, it was just getting started. Less than a year after the death of the old king, the shareholders of the Bank of England were convinced of the justification of their fears. They tried to steal their know-how, their invention. Copy how cunning Chinese manufacturers copy the shape of cars today famous brands. It was impossible to keep the secret of the "typewriter". The advantages and ingenious simplicity were evident. Instead of the complex procedure of extracting gold and silver, there is a simple process of printing money.
France, defeated in the war due to "lack of credit", decided to open its own "typewriter". In 1716, the Scotsman John Low received a patent for opening a private bank with the right to issue bank notes exchanged for metal. King Louis XV of France at that moment was a baby and, of course, was not interested in financing issues. But the regent, Duke Philippe d'Orleans, happily seized on a great idea. He commands that bank notes should be accepted as payment of taxes on a par with specie.
In 1718 Lowe's bank was renamed the State Bank. Although in fact it was the same "joint venture", where the shares were divided among themselves by cunning bankers and royalty. Now the military and diplomatic rivalry between England and France has taken on a secret financial turn. Two groups of bankers, who received two different state "roofs", fought among themselves for the right to print empty money uncontrollably. And thus gain power over the world.
But we digress a little. Let us return to the French cloning of the "English" idea of paper money. The story of the rapid rise of England under William's scepter began to be repeated in France. There is nothing surprising in this - your personal economy will also flourish at once if you find a suitcase with money on the street. The Bank of France was very successful. John Law, like a good wizard, decides at once financial difficulties royal power: he lends the government 100 million livres at 3% per annum. For comparison: at the time of the death of the "sun king" there were only 700 thousand livres in the treasury. And at the end of 1716, when John Law turned on his "typewriter", the budget deficit reached 140 million livres.
And now France can continue its global expansion because it has money. The French copy the British system not only in the main, but also in private moments. Power gives to John Lowe at the mercy of the development of gold deposits in Louisiana and all overseas trade. All this will be done by the India Company, a complete analogue of the British East India Company. The shares of the new enterprise are sold at first to everyone, and then only to those who pay with bank notes that could be obtained in exchange for their gold coins.
“It turned into a competition to see who could get rid of their gold the fastest.” But the successes will be short-lived, surprisingly short-lived. The monetary basis for the expansion of the French Empire will be destroyed in just a few months. Here is a timeline of the rise and fall of the Bank of England understudy on French soil. In January 1720, banker John Lowe, in the wake of the phenomenal success of the "shop", became the general controller of the finances of France, because the Bank he had just led had lent France 100 million livres. And at that moment, something terrible happens.
“Anxious rumors immediately spread with incredible speed, and all of Paris was in the grip of a monstrous panic,” writes the French writer Guy Breton in his book Love Stories in the History of France. And already at the beginning of 1720, a massive pressure began on the bank of those who wanted to exchange paper bank notes for coins. The exchange was first slowed down, and then completely suspended. When did it happen? February-March 1720. It is difficult to trace how the "panic of depositors" was organized over the past years, but I think that the technologies are no different from today's ones.
Please note that this happened after three years of operation of the State Bank of France. So, at first, his business went uphill. And suddenly they went down sharply - after a "record" loan of 100 million livres received by the government. Coincidence? Judge for yourself - the blow was delivered quickly and ruthlessly. The bank, which issued 3 billion paper money under the guarantee of 700 million cash coins, was unable to pay. But the French government did not want to give up without a fight. And found a very "original" way out of the situation.
Since the population does not want to use paper banknotes, but prefers coins, it means that it is necessary ... to ban the circulation of coins. “By a decree of March 11, 1720, it was announced that after May 1, the use of specie was prohibited; found with someone, it was subject to confiscation. You can imagine the reaction this decision caused in France. Of course - universal rejoicing and full enthusiasm of the masses. After such a decree, the popularity of paper tickets fell altogether, as did the popularity of royalty. Everyone started chasing the forbidden coin and running from the permitted banknotes. And it ended in disaster very quickly.
The next decree of May 22, 1720 announced a halving of the nominal rate of bank notes. That is, those who law-abidingly complied with the previous decree of the king and used paper money, became twice as poor at once. Then, on October 10, 1720, a third decree was issued to stop the circulation of tickets after November 1, 1720. It was decided to exchange small tickets for government bonds with a reduction in the nominal rate by a further two times. As a result, there was a very quick double robbery of law-abiding citizens.
It is clear that the royal government, which has committed such tricks in France (directly "written off" from our Russian reforms), has become extremely unpopular. It was at this time that the charge of hatred for the French monarchy and the country was laid, which in 1789 would lead to a revolution and smash the royal power to pieces. In November 1720, the State Bank went bankrupt, and its founder was forced to flee France a month later. It is only interesting to know - WHERE? That would clear up a lot...
The further fate of the founder of the "printing machine" in France is unknown to me. But the fate of the founder of the Bank of England is known. As we remember, William III of Orange, King of England, agreed with the bankers. And he didn't break the deal. Perhaps because he also died at the right time. In March 1702, he died at Kensington Palace from ... (again?!) the consequences of a fall from a horse. Could this happen? Could. Only two facts arouse suspicion: a similar death of the Duke of Berry and the officially announced cause of death of the founder of the "typewriter". Why exactly did he die?
Wilhelm died of pneumonia, which was a complication after a broken shoulder. Which, in turn, the king broke when falling from his horse. Who would have thought that pneumonia starts with a fracture? What is the relationship between a fracture and pneumonia? Agree, all this is extremely curious. And it is very suspicious... The founder of anything is necessary for the iconostasis. After all, it was this king who signed all the laws the bankers needed: he gave everything he could and what they needed at that time. The next kings will get the system already as a given. And the secret of his agreements, William III of Orange will take with him to the grave and will strictly look at the heirs to the throne from the front portrait.
The Bank of England will become a given for the new monarchs. Covenant and command. Unchangeable decision of the ancestor. It was time to start thinking about further steps to establish world hegemony. There has always been one way to do this - war. The British elite, led by bankers, will add another one to the global geopolitical treasury - special operations. Both are abundantly "lubricated" with money - fortunately now they appear out of thin air. The War of the Spanish Succession is the Beginning long way"typewriter" by the July morning of 1944 in Bretton Woods, when the pound will give primacy to the dollar.
The time will come to change the location, and the "typewriter" will move overseas, where it will be more secure. But first there will be the First World War, which will destroy the gold ruble and the gold German mark. The currency of the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires will go into oblivion. Only one step remains before world domination, only one global war. And the scenario of World War II, which was written in London, will be different from what will happen in reality.
... And the main rule - there are no rules
A typewriter or a typewriter - once this thing was the property of those who are commonly called people of intellectual professions: scientists, writers, journalists. A brisk knock on the keys was also heard in the reception rooms of high officials, where a charming typist-secretary sat at a table next to a typewriter ...
Now another time and typewriters are almost a thing of the past, they were replaced by personal computers, which retained only the keyboard from the typewriter. But maybe if there weren't a typewriter, there wouldn't be a computer? By the way, the typewriter also has its own holiday - Typewriter Day, and it is celebrated on March 1st.
Old typewriter, early 20th century
Legends and historical sources tell us that the first typewriter was developed as much as three hundred years ago in 1714 by Henry Mill, and he even received a patent for the invention from the Queen of England herself. But only the images of this machine have not been preserved.
A real, working machine was first introduced to the world by an Italian named Terry Pellegrino in 1808. His writing apparatus was made for his blind friend, Countess Caroline Fantoni de Fivisono, who was so able to communicate with the world by typewriting with her friends and loved ones.
Old typewriters with "unusual" keyboard layouts
The idea of creating an ideal and convenient typewriter captured the minds of inventors, and over time, various modifications of this writing device began to appear in the world.
In 1863, the ancestor of all modern printing presses finally appeared: the Americans Christopher Sholes and Samuel Soule - former printers - first came up with a device for numbering pages in account books, and then, therefore, they created a workable typewriter, printing words.
A patent for the invention was obtained in 1868. The first version of their typewriter had two rows of keys with numbers and an alphabetical arrangement of letters from A to Z (there were no lowercase letters, only capital ones; there were also no numbers 1 and 0 - the letters I and O were used instead), but this option turned out to be inconvenient . Why?
There is a legend according to which, with a quick successive press on the letters located nearby, the hammers with the letters got stuck, forcing them to stop work and clear the jam with their hands. Scholes then came up with the QWERTY keyboard, a keyboard that made typists work slower.
According to another legend, Sholes' brother analyzed the compatibility of letters in English and proposed a variant in which the most frequently occurring letters were spaced as far as possible, which made it possible to avoid sticking when printing.
Typewriters with a familiar keyboard layout
Various types of machines over a period, gradually became more practical for daily use. There were also typewriters with a different arrangement of keyboards, but ... The classic Underwood Typewriter, which appeared in 1895, was able to dominate at the beginning of the 20th century, and most manufacturers began to make their typewriters in the same style.
The principle of operation of one of the modifications of typewriters Williams Typewriter demonstration
Old postcard - girl with a typewriter
What only is not present and there were no typewriters. Printing machines for special purposes: stenographic, accounting, for writing formulas, for the blind and others.
Typewriters for various fields of activity
There was even an alternative - typewriters without ... keyboards. These are the so-called index squeakers: one hand works with the pointer, which selects the desired letter in the index, and the other hand presses the lever to print the letter on paper.
Such typewriters were very cheap compared to conventional ones and were in demand among housewives, travelers, graphomaniacs and even children.
Index typewriters
The principle of operation of the index typewriter The Mignon Index Typewriter - 1905
And a little about the Russian keyboard layout - YTSUKEN ... the story of its appearance is as follows: alas, it was invented in America in late XIX century. Then all the companies produced a typewriter with only one layout option - YIUKEN.
This is not a typo - the familiar YTSUKEN appeared only after the reform of the Russian language, as a result of which "yat" and "I" disappeared from the alphabet. So now we have on the computer everything that has been invented for centuries before us ... The typewriters themselves have become an antique value and can be quite perceived as works of art.
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