The golden age of the Roman Empire summary. Decline of the Roman Empire - Knowledge Hypermarket. The reign of Mark Trajan: domestic and foreign policy

"Golden Age" of the Roman Empire (96-192 AD)

At this time, the ideological attitudes that determined the relationship between power and society changed radically. At the turn of the I-II centuries. among the Greco-Roman intellectual elite, there is a reassessment of values in relation to the principate as a system of sole power: the philosophical opposition with its criticism of autocracy and related abuses has been replaced by a theoretical justification of the monarchy as the best form of government, headed by a virtuous princeps, who is guided in his activities interests of citizens and considerations of higher justice. This theory was embodied in four speeches "On the royal power" of Dion Chrysostomos and in the "Panegy" of Pliny the Younger (100).

Trajan largely corresponded to the image of the ideal princeps created by Greek and Roman intellectuals. He was an outstanding statesman: a sensible politician, a capable commander and an experienced administrator, a modest, simple and accessible person, alien to lust for power, money-grubbing and passion for pleasure. In his policy, Trajan focused mainly on the senate, the army and the provincial nobility. The emperor had a constructive dialogue with the Senate, placing its legislative activity under the control of his administration.

As a sign of their gratitude, the Senate awarded Trajan the title of "best emperor" (princeps optimus). In 100, Pliny the Younger, on behalf of the senators, addressed the emperor with the following words: “We love you as much as you deserve it, and we love you not out of love for you, but out of love for ourselves.”

The army was an obedient and effective instrument of the policy of the Irinceps. Trajan paid considerable attention to the life of the provinces, strictly controlling the activities of the governors. Many noble provincials under him were included in the Senate 1 . This meant that the provinces finally ceased to be the objects of the robbery of the imperial authorities and became organic components of the Roman state. Trajan was in regular correspondence with the governors of the provinces, trying to keep the entire Roman Empire in sight.

Against the background of the economic recovery of the provinces, the decline of the Italian economy was all the more noticeable. To provide effective assistance to the impoverished rural population, the first Antonins created the so-called alimentary system: the state allocated money fund, from which loans were issued at 5% per annum for investment in the economy. The interest received was used to pay benefits to orphans and children of the poor (in Rome alone, 5,000 children of poor citizens received benefits). In addition, the state paid for their education in primary school. The alimentary system contributed not only to the revival Agriculture Italy, but also the preparation of human reserves for the Roman army.

Stabilization of domestic political and economic situation Empire created the prerequisites for an active foreign policy. Trajan brought the number of legions to 30. During the military campaigns of 101-103 and 105-107. a huge Roman army led by the emperor himself conquered the strong Dacian kingdom of Decebalus. Defeated on the battlefield, Decebalus committed suicide, the Romans captured the capital of the Dacians, the city of Sarmizegetusa, Dacia became a Roman province (107). The conquest of Dacia with its fertile soils, gold mines and natural salt reserves was Trajan's most important foreign policy action, both from an economic and military-strategic point of view. Huge booty allowed the emperor to make generous payments and distributions to the Praetorians, the army and the plebs, to arrange grandiose spectacles in Rome that lasted 123 days, persecution and gladiator fights, and also to launch active construction: the magnificent baths of Trajan, a new plumbing system and a luxurious forum of Trajan with 40 -meter column topped with a statue of the emperor.

In 106, the Romans conquered the Nabataean kingdom and turned it into the province of Arabia. Then Trajan began to prepare for a war with Parthia: the emperor wanted to oust the Parthians from Mesopotamia and subjugate Armenia. Having set out on a campaign in the autumn of 113, Trajan occupied Armenia the following year and turned it into a province. In 115-116 years. he defeated the troops of the Parthian king Vologese III (105-147), captured his capital Ctesiphon and conquered all of Mesopotamia up to the coast of the Persian Gulf. Trajan placed his protege on the Parthian throne Partama spatha (116). However, stretched communications, discontent of the local population with the Roman occupation, and serious unrest in the eastern provinces forced Trajan to withdraw the legions beyond the Euphrates. Huge material costs were in vain: the newly conquered lands in the East could not be retained. On the way to Italy, in Cilicia, the 64-year-old Trajan fell ill and died in August 117. Like his predecessor, he was deified. Despite the failure eastern expedition 114-117 BC, the Romans kept a good memory of Trajan: since then it has become a custom in Rome to wish the new emperor "to be happier than Augustus and better than Trajan."

The childless Trajan was succeeded by his cousin and adopted son, 41-year-old Publius Aelius Hadrian (117-138). He became a worthy successor to the "best princeps": an intelligent and educated person, a brilliant administrator and an experienced military man, an energetic and far-sighted politician, the new emperor was at the height of understanding the tasks that confronted him. In particular, realizing the futility of the aggressive policy in the East and the complete depletion of state resources, Adrian concluded a peace treaty with Parthia on the terms of restoration status quo(the border was fixed along the Euphrates) and began the construction of a powerful defensive line on the eastern borders of the empire. Thanks to the measures taken, peace with Parthia was maintained for 44 years. As the biographer of the emperor wrote, “under Hadrian there were no major military campaigns at all; wars also ended almost silently. He was very loved by the soldiers for his exceptional care of the army and for the fact that he was very generous towards them. With the Parthians, he was always on friendly terms, because he removed from them the king whom Trajan had given them. He allowed the Armenians to have their own king, while under Trajan they had a Roman legate. From the inhabitants of Mesopotamia, he did not demand the tribute that Trajan imposed on them. In Albanians and Iberians, he had true friends, since he generously endowed their kings, although they refused to come to visit him.

Having completed business in the East, Hadrian took up a similar arrangement of the empire's borders in Europe and Africa. Grandiose work began everywhere on the construction of border fortifications, called limes. The Roman limes was a system of small fortresses, forts and field camps, between which a ditch was dug and a rampart was poured, fortified with a wall or palisade (there was a road behind them for the operational transfer of troops). The large-scale construction of defensive fortifications on the border meant the final rejection of the empire's policy of territorial expansion and the transition to strategic defense at all frontiers. Adrian took care of maintaining the army in a state of constant combat readiness. He authorized the replenishment of the legions at the expense of provincials who did not have Roman or Latin citizenship, since the number of volunteers from among Roman citizens was constantly decreasing. Thus was created the basis for the barbarization of the Roman military machine which eventually led to serious socio-political consequences.

Hadrian carried out a number of measures aimed at strengthening the imperial system of government. He reorganized the council of the princeps, which included senior officials, heads of departments and prominent lawyers. The number of departments themselves, which received state status, increased: instead of freedmen, they were now headed by horsemen. From now on, all managers had each their own rank, set by the state, and were on a salary (that is, they became officials). The administration of the provinces was organized in a similar way. The emperor exercised constant control over the activities of the governors. From time to time curators visited the provinces with inspections ( curators) from Rome. In 118, Adrian forgave arrears for 16 years totaling 980 million sesterces. He established a state post office and abolished the farming system, developed an alimentary system (in particular, the emperor increased the amount of child allowances) and took a number of effective measures to revive Italy's agriculture. Finally, he streamlined legal proceedings: by his order, in 130, the lawyer Publius Salvius Julian 1, on the basis of praetor edicts, developed the so-called Eternal Edict (Edictum peipetuum), published on behalf of Adrian himself. Since then, judicial law-making has become the exclusive prerogative of the emperor.

Hadrian traveled frequently and built a lot (especially in Greece). A passionate admirer of Greek culture, an intellectual and esthete, he became famous for his love of art and refined taste, leaving to his descendants a magnificent architectural ensemble of a villa in Tibur (modern Tivoli) with an area of about 300 hectares, a grandiose temple of Venus and Roma, the famous Roman Pantheon and others structures. Adrian did a lot for the development of urban life. One of the few bursts of socio-political tension in his reign was an uprising in Judea led by Simon Bar Kochba 1 (132-135). Towards the end of his life, suffering from a serious illness, Adrian executed several senators without trial, thereby incurring universal hatred.

In July 138, the 62-year-old emperor died and was buried in a huge round mausoleum (now the Castel Sant'Angelo in Rome). Hadrian, like Nerva and Trajan, was childless. He was replaced on the throne by a 52-year-old adopted by him. Antoninus Pius (138-161), who gave the name to the whole dynasty. He achieved the deification of the late Adrian 1 from the Senate, for which he received the agnomen Pius("Pious"). The biographer Antoninus Pius wrote about him this way: “He stood out for his appearance, was famous for his good morals, was distinguished by noble mercy, had a calm expression on his face, possessed extraordinary talents, brilliant eloquence, knew literature excellently; was sober; took care that the fields were processed well; was soft, generous, did not encroach on someone else's; with all this, he had a good sense of proportion and the absence of any vanity. He was by nature very merciful and during his reign did not commit a single cruel act.

Having inherited from his adoptive father a state in a state of prosperity and stability, Antoninus Pius continued the policy of his predecessor and succeeded in this. During the reign of the noble and humane princeps, the Romans for a long time forgot what arbitrariness and abuse of power are. It was a rare period of relative prosperity and prosperity for the empire. With regard to the plebs, the policy of "bread and circuses" continued. The emperor issued a number of decrees that regulated the relationship between slaves and their masters: in particular, from now on, the master was responsible for the murder of a slave or ill-treatment; the law provided for slaves to engage in commerce, to have a family, and to enter into business relations with masters. Adhering to a peaceful policy, Antoninus Pius nevertheless had to fight a lot: his legates defeated the British and Moors, Germans and Dacians, suppressed unrest in the provinces and repelled barbarian raids. The meek and virtuous emperor died in March 161 at the age of 75, having transferred power to the co-rulers adopted by him, the 40-year-old Marcus Aurelius (161-180) and 30 year old Lucius Verus (16-169). The latter led a wild life and did not take part in the management of the empire.

A refined intellectual, a well-educated admirer of Stoic philosophy, Marcus Aurelius went down in history as a philosopher on the throne. After him, there remained a philosophical work written in Greek “To myself”. In this essay, Marcus Aurelius wrote: “Always zealously take care that the matter in which you this moment busy, to perform as worthy of a Roman and a husband, with full and sincere cordiality, with love for people, with freedom and justice; and also about putting aside all other ideas. You will succeed if you perform each task as the last in your life, free from any recklessness, from disregard for the conditions of reason due to passions, from hypocrisy and dissatisfaction with your fate. You see how few are the requirements, by fulfilling which, everyone can live a blissful and divine life. And the gods themselves will not demand anything more from the one who fulfills these requirements. Time human life- moment; its essence is an eternal flow; sensation is vague; the structure of the whole body is perishable; the soul is unstable; fate is mysterious; fame is unreliable. In a word, everything pertaining to the body is like a stream, pertaining to the soul is like a dream and smoke. Life is a struggle and a journey through a foreign land; posthumous glory - oblivion.

Marcus Aurelius was a man of duty, moral and modest; above all, he put the interests of the state and was fully aware of his responsibility for the fate of the empire. Under him, the quantitative and qualitative growth of the imperial bureaucracy continued. The emperor himself was actively involved in legal proceedings. His relations with the senatorial and equestrian estates were ideal. Marcus Aurelius brought into the senate many noble provincials, especially of Eastern and African origin. The emperor-philosopher, like his predecessors, pleased the capital's plebs with circuses and grain distributions, preserved the alimentary system and, on the whole, quite successfully ensured internal political stability. The legates of Marcus Aurelius easily suppressed uprisings in Britain and Egypt, and when in 175 the best commander of the empire, Gaius Avidius Cassius, raised a rebellion in the East, the emperor reacted to this event with a characteristic phrase: “We don’t live so badly so that he can win." Soon Cassius was killed by his own soldiers, and the rebellion ended. During the 19 years of his reign, not a single conspiracy was organized against Marcus Aurelius.

At the same time, the peace-loving and humane emperor had to wage difficult wars that threatened the empire with major troubles. In 161-165 years. with varying success there was a war with the Parthians who invaded Armenia and Syria. Having ousted the Parthians from there, the Roman legions occupied a significant part of Mesopotamia, but they could not gain a foothold in it and were forced to retreat. Nevertheless, in 166, Roman diplomats managed to conclude an advantageous peace treaty with Parthia, according to which Northern Mesopotamia became part of the empire, and Armenia entered the sphere of Roman influence.

In 167, taking advantage of the plight of Rome in connection with the Parthian War, the plague epidemic and crop failures in Italy, the Germanic tribes of the Quadi and Marcomanni, who belonged to the Suebi confederation, as well as the Sarmatians, broke through the Rhaeian-Danubian border and invaded Northern Italy. (First Marcomannic War, 167-175). To save Italy, the Senate, as during the war with Hannibal, took emergency measures: even robbers, slaves and gladiators were mobilized into the army, and Marcus Aurelius himself sold off part of the imperial property in order to raise funds for equipping the troops. In 169 the Romans ousted the barbarians from Italy. Subsequently, the Roman legions cleared the Danubian provinces of the enemy and crossed the Danube 1. In 175, peace was concluded, according to which the Germanic and Sarmatian tribes were under the Roman protectorate. However, the barbarians soon resumed their raids. In 177, Marcus Aurelius was forced to start the Second Marcomannic War (177-180). The onslaught of the barbarians was repulsed, the situation on the border stabilized. In March 180, at the age of 59, Marcus Aurelius died of the plague in Vindobon (modern Vienna). In Rome, a column was erected in honor of the emperor, crowned with his statue.

Marcus Aurelius was succeeded by his 18-year-old son Commodus (ISO-192), the last representative of the Antonine dynasty. He was a rude, cruel and voluptuous despot. After the death of his father, Commodus concluded a peace treaty with the Quadi and Marcomanni, after which he immediately departed for Rome, where he entrusted the administration of the state to his greedy slanderers, and indulged in wild revelry, drunkenness and debauchery. Having executed his wife, he started a harem. Distinguished by extraordinary physical strength and strong physique, the emperor proclaimed himself the “Invincible Roman Hercules”, appeared in public in the skin of a lion and with a club on his shoulder, personally participated in the persecution of wild animals, personally killing lions and elephants, and performed in the arena of the amphitheater as a gladiator. Completely distraught, Commodus renamed all the months of the calendar in his honor and even called Rome "the city of Commodus" (190). His biographer wrote about Commodus: “Drinking until dawn and squandering the funds of the Roman Empire, he dragged himself in the evenings to taverns and houses of debauchery. To govern the provinces, he sent either accomplices in his shameful adventures, or people recommended by these accomplices. He became so hated by the Senate that he himself, in turn, began to rage cruelly to the destruction of this great estate and turned from contemptible into terrible.

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Decline of the Roman Empire

The upheavals that swept Asia did not bypass Europe. The greatest empire in the world, the Roman Empire, the memory of which for centuries influenced the life of the European peoples, from its heyday quickly declined. It marked the onset of a new historical era - the Middle Ages.

Golden Age of Rome

At the beginning of the llth century, it reached the pinnacle of its power. Under the emperor Trojan (ruled in 98-117), the power of the empire was recognized by Dacia, Arabia, Armenia, Mesopotamia, Under Hadrian (ruled in 117 - 138) Special attention devoted the axis to strengthening the borders of the empire, improving the management of its vast possessions. Legal norms have received significant development: Roman law subsequently became a role model in medieval Europe.

The division of labor between the provinces developed rapidly within the empire. The North African lands were its breadbaskets. Crafts flourished in Gaul. She supplied ceramics, glass, metal products, linen, cloth to the markets of the empire, Italy and Spain also produced wine, oil, and metals. Gold was mined in Dacia. The Eastern provinces became a transit point for trade with Asian countries, including China. The Great Silk Road was formed, along which goods from China through the Pamirs, the Ferghana Valley, Parthia and Armenia were delivered to Rome. New centers of crafts and trade arose.

The riches flowing to Rome allowed the emperors to turn the life of the Roman plebs into continuous entertainment. Almost half of the days of the year were considered holidays. Theatrical performances, gladiator fights, fights with wild animals were constantly going on in the Eternal City. Amusements were also organized for the inhabitants of the provinces.

The emperors relied on the local nobility, which gained access to the senate. In Gaul, Spain, and many other provinces, schools were opened where they taught Latin, Greek, and gave rhetoric lessons. Latin names gained popularity, the upper strata of the population were distinguished by the knowledge of Roman poets (Ovid, 43 BC - 18 AD, Virgil, 70-19 BC; Horace, 65 BC - 8 AD). e.), satirical works of Juvenal (60-127), Lucuan (90-120), ridiculing ignorance and vanity.

The Romans were well aware of the ideas of the Greek philosophers. However, the most popular among them were the views of the Stoics, who associated peace of mind with the observance ethical standards serving the public interest. In Rome, Seneca (4 BC - 65 AD) were supporters of Stoicism. Epictetus (5-140), author of many philosophical works, the last emperor of the Golden Age, Marcus Aurelius (ruled in 1bl-180).

Crisis of the Roman Empire

By the end of the 2nd century, due to climate change, agricultural conditions in the Roman Empire began to deteriorate. The advance of the deserts undermined the economy of North Africa. More frequent cold snaps have caused a drop in yields in Italy, Gaul, Spain. Famine set in, plague broke out in many provinces. The uprisings of the peasants, who were joined by slaves, caused the decline of the economy and trade. Tax revenues were reduced, it became difficult to recruit troops and pay them a salary.

Discontent in the army led to a whole series of military coups. The empire plunged into the abyss of civil war (193-197). The political crisis continued for almost a century. The so-called "soldier-emperors" who came from the military milieu alternated in power. None of them completely controlled all the Roman possessions.

In an effort to secure support for themselves in the army, the "soldier" emperors endowed veteran legionnaires with land, including through the confiscation of decaying farms large landowners(saltus). Under the conditions of climate change, the disruption of trade relations, they lost their efficiency, their products did not find a market, and even the maintenance of slaves did not pay off the axis. Landowners considered it most advantageous for themselves to allocate small plots of land (peculia) to slaves. For the use of them, the slave had to give the owner of the land part of the crop (about a third) and work for him up to two weeks a year. Part of the land was leased to rent free townspeople (columns) on the same terms. Over time, the position of slaves and columns ceased to differ significantly.

Surplus products left after settlement with the owner of the land and not used for personal consumption were not sold by slaves and columns, but were exchanged for products. artisans, commodity-money relations were gradually replaced by barter.

Slaves and columns did not pay taxes, all settlements with the authorities were taken over by the owner of the land. The small landowners, forced to pay taxes on their own, defenseless against the arbitrariness of officials, quickly went bankrupt. Thus, entire settlements accepted the patronage of large landowners, their inhabitants voluntarily transferred to the position of columns.

Trade cities were empty and fell into decay. Huge estates became the main economic unit, at which small centers of crafts and trade arose, serving the surrounding villages and colonial settlements.

Changes in the economic life of the Roman Empire contributed to the stabilization of the political situation. The columns became a source of replenishment of the army - the main pillar of imperial power. At Diocletian(reigned 284-305), who was the son of a freedman slave from Dalmatia and distinguished himself in the suppression of uprisings in Africa and Gaul, the power of the empire over its possessions was completely restored. The entire population of the Roman Empire, except for slaves, received the rights of its citizens. Thus, the privileged position of the inhabitants of Italy was abolished, the power of the Senaga was undermined. Administrative reform divided the empire into four parts - Gaul, Italy, Illyria and the East.

Diocletian took control of the East, where economic life, trade, large cities did not fall into such decline as in the western provinces. The emperor's residence was the city of Nicomedia in Asia Minor. Under Diocletian's successor, Constantine l (ruled 306-337), the Greek city of Byzantium, renamed Constantinople, became the capital of the empire.

Christianity in the Roman Empire

The Roman authorities were tolerant in matters of faith. The Romans themselves believed in the existence of gods, personifying the forces of nature and patronizing certain types of activity. Jupiter was considered the eldest of the gods, Neptune was the god of the seas, Mars was the god of war, Mercury was the god of trade, etc.

In the conquered countries, the Romans usually did not force the local population to accept their faith, they put up with the fact that they adhere to their own religious beliefs. However, an exception was made for Christianity. It was viewed as a religion hostile to Rome. Many Roman emperors persecuted the first Christians, they were poisoned by lions in the arenas of the coliseums for the amusement of the plebs, the persecution continued for two and a half centuries.

The reasons for such intolerance were that Christians, who professed faith in one God, rejected as pagan all other religious beliefs. The growth in the number of Christians led to the loss of influence and income of the priests of numerous temples of the Roman Empire and its possessions. The Christians did not recognize the divinity of the emperors, whom the priests proclaimed to be like gods. Many of the Christians, preaching non-violence, refused to serve in the army. Their ideas about the equality of all people before God were perceived as a challenge to the orders of the slave empire, where slaves were considered inferior beings.

Despite the persecution, the number of Christians, especially in the context of the crisis that gripped the Roman Empire in the 2nd century, increased. Persecution forced Christians to create a strong, well-organized, cohesive church capable of resisting the authorities. The spread of Christian ideas of humility and non-violence began to be seen among the nobility as a means of keeping slaves and columns in obedience. In the new conditions, many wealthy Romans became adherents of Christianity.

In 313, a compromise was reached between Emperor Constantine and the Christians. They recognized the divinity of the imperial empire of power (but not the personality of the emperor), agreed not to shirk military service. Constantine granted them freedom of religion, freed them from the obligation to perform the pagan rite of worship of the emperor as a living god. The Christian Church received the right to accept inheritances and donations, and was exempted from taxes. The church court was equalized in rights with the state. The emperor began to generously endow Christians and by the end of his life he himself was baptized.

This step provided Konstantin with support Christian and their church, which was quickly turning into an influential political and economic force. In less than a century, about 1/10 of all the lands of the empire passed to it.

The change in the position of the Christian Church was accompanied by the emergence of rivalry between its hierarchs for a dominant position. There are widespread interpretations of Christianity that differ from the generally accepted ones. So, the Alexandrian presbyter Arius believed that Christ, created by God the Father, is not equal and consubstantial with Him, as the majority of bishops believed.

In 325, the Ecumenical Council (a meeting of all Christian clergy) was assembled in Nicaea. It adopted the Symbol of Faith - summary the essence of Christian doctrine, uniform rules for the performance of rituals were established. Deviations from the approved canons, primarily Arianism, were condemned as heresies incompatible with belonging to the Christian church.

The last attempt to attack Christianity was made under the emperor Julian (ruled 361-363), who, believing that internal strife weakened Christians, tried to revive the old beliefs, restore the pagan temples that had fallen into disrepair. This attempt was not successful. After the death of Julian in the war with the Persians, the emperors strongly supported Christianity.

Under Emperor Theodosius (reigned 379-395), all religions except Christianity were banned. Supporters of various heretical (not approved by the Councils) of his directions also began to be persecuted. The lands that remained at the pagan temples were confiscated, most of them

Fall of the Western Roman Empire

In the 4th century, the pressure of the tribal unions of Northern, Central and Eastern Europe on the possessions of the Western Roman Empire intensified.

Due to climate change, the lands previously occupied by them could no longer feed the increased population. whole tribes moved south, settling in countryside Roman provinces, particularly in Gaul.

Another reason for the invasions of peoples into the territory of the empire was the offensive of the Huns, who, moving from the east, reached the Northern Black Sea region by the middle of the 4th century. They crowded out the tribes of Sarmatians and Jutes, who lived between the Dniester and the Danube. From the north, the Slavic tribes were advancing on the Goths. The Goths, in turn, were heading to Central Europe and south to the territory of the Roman Empire.

The authorities of the empire, especially during the periods of interregnums, the intensification of the struggle for power, did not interfere with the development of the Roman possessions by the "barbarians", especially since they were no longer alien to the empire. Many Germanic tribes converted to Christianity, their squads were in the service of the Roman military leaders.

The Vestgoths (Western Goths fleeing the Huns were allowed to settle south of the Danube. The replenishment of the population of the empire gave rise to hopes for an increase in the amount of taxes collected, new recruits for the army.

The Roman authorities, however, did not take into account that the "barbarians" who were used to solving their problems on their own would not dutifully endure the extortions of officials. The Visigoths rebelled, slaves and columns joined them. And In 378, they defeated the Roman army at Adrianople. With great difficulty, the troops of Theodosius managed to temporarily pacify the Wechtgoths.

After the death of Theodosius in 395, the Roman Empire collapsed. The military leaders of the western part of the empire refused to recognize the authority of Constantinople, which turned into the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium). The Visigoths revolted again. Having devastated Greece and Illyria, they began to raid Italy. In 410 Visigoth king Alarux (Z70-410) captured and sacked Rome. The capital of the Western Roman Empire was moved to Ravenna, in northern Italy.

At the same time, the Germanic tribes of the Vandals, Alans and Suebi broke into Gaul and Spain. In 429, having taken possession of the fleet, they invaded North Africa, where they founded their own state.

The strongest blow to the empire was dealt by the Huns, whose lands stretched from the Caucasus to modern Hungary. Their leader Attila (4З4-45З) in 436 launched an attack on Europe. Hun troops invaded the Balkan Peninsula, ravaged more than 70 cities, forced the Eastern Roman Empire to pay tribute. Having passed the Germanic lands, the Huns began to devastate Gaul. This forced the Visigoths, Franks, Burgundians to temporarily unite with the Romans and oppose Atgila, who was defeated in 451 in Gaul. Retreating, the Huns plundered Northern Italy. After the death of Attila, the union of the Hun tribes broke up, and under the onslaught of the Goths, they migrated to the Northern Black Sea region.

In the Western Roman Empire, the struggle for power began again: nine emperors were replaced in 21 years. During civil strife, Rome was taken and plundered by the troops of the Vandals. In 476, the leader of the German mercenaries Odoacer (4З1-49З) overthrew the last emperor Romulus August and, with the approval of the Senate, was proclaimed king (king) of Italy.

The Eastern Roman Empire recognized the legitimacy of the authority of Odoacer, who was given the title of patrician.

With the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the migrations of peoples did not end; they continued until the 8th century. Dozens of kingdoms arose on the territory of the former empire, but the halo of its greatness influenced their politics for a long time. Many of the royal dynasties of Europe traced their history back to the time of the empire, considering themselves the rightful successors to its power.

Questions and tasks

1. What period is called the golden age of the Roman Empire? With the activities of which emperors is the power of the empire associated?
2. Specify the economic and political reasons for the crisis of the Roman Empire. What changes took place in the economic structure of Rome? List the features of the colony and indicate its differences from slavery.
3. Think. what goals did the administrative reforms of Diocletian and Constantine pursue.
4. Fill in the table:

	Reasons for the fall of Rome
Internal
External

What factors do you think played a decisive role in the decline of Rome?
5. What was the spiritual crisis of Roman society? Why did the Christian church become a cohesive organization that became an influential political and economic power?
6. Make a detailed plan on the topic "The Fall of the Western Roman Empire."

1. What period is called the golden age of the Roman Empire? With the activities of which emperors is the power of the empire associated?

The golden age of the Roman Empire is associated with the rule of five good emperors from the Antonine dynasty, who ruled from 96 to 180. They successively succeeded each other without dynastic crises, while all five actively participated in the management of the empire personally solving problems that arose. They mean:

Marc Koktsei Nerva (96-98):

Mark Ulpiy Trayan (98-117):

Publius Aelius Hadrian (117-138):

Antoninus Pius (138-161):

Marcus Aurelius (161-180).

2. Specify the economic and political reasons for the crisis of the Roman Empire. How the economic structure has changed social structure Roman society and the rights of its citizens?

Causes of the crisis of the Roman Empire.

The fall in average annual temperatures led to a crisis in agriculture.

Emperor Septimius Severus changed the system of command and control of the army. Before him, the commanders (legates) of the legions were politicians, for whom this position was just a brief episode in their careers. The soldiers did not consider them theirs. The North introduced the practice of appointing legates of the legions from lower-ranking commanders. Soon there were people who had spent their whole lives in the army, who were trusted by the soldiers and who began to receive the highest command positions, that is, political weight. It was these people who became the so-called soldier emperors, civil wars between which tormented the Roman Empire for several decades.

After the good emperors came the rule of several bad ones at the turn of the 2nd-3rd centuries. Some of the emperors who succeeded each other then did not manage the empire at all, but only surprised the people with their eccentricities and cruelties.

The civil wars that lasted several decades violated economic ties between the provinces, having made unprofitable commodity farms, which had previously flourished large latifundia, most farms became subsistence, an economically unified empire with subsistence farming was no longer needed.

Legions for several decades engaged in war with each other, and not with external enemies. During this time, the wild tribes on the borders of the empire got used to successful campaigns in the empire, which brought rich booty, scouted the routes of such campaigns and were not going to refuse.

- During civil wars, all sides used to use barbarians as mercenaries, after the end of civil wars, this practice was continued. As a result, the Roman army no longer consisted predominantly of Romans, but of barbarians, and at all levels, including the highest command positions.

The seemingly endless streak of disasters led to a spiritual crisis in the empire, as a result of which new cults gained popularity, the main of which were Mithraism and Christianity.

As a result of civil wars, as mentioned above, subsistence farming prevailed in the Roman Empire. Under subsistence economy, in contrast to commodity economy, the use of slaves ceased to be effective, their share in society was reduced. Instead, the number of columns increased - dependent people who worked on the land of the owner for part of the harvest (from this institution the estate of serfs later developed). During the crisis, all the inhabitants of the empire became Roman citizens. Because of this, citizenship has ceased to be a privilege, as it used to be, it has ceased to carry additional rights, only duties in the form of taxes remain. And after the deification of the ruler, the citizens finally turned into subjects.

3. Consider: what were the goals of the administrative reforms of Diocletian and Constantine?

Diocletian and Constantine deified the power of the emperors, hoping by this to prevent further actions of the military commanders (they could not achieve this goal). In addition, the new administrative division of the empire into smaller provinces and the transfer of many officials from monetary to in-kind allowance (which was easier to deliver to the centers of smaller provinces) corresponded to the changed economic conditions, the actual transition of the empire to subsistence farming.

4. Fill in the table. What factors do you think played a decisive role in the decline of Rome?

As can be seen from the table, there were more internal reasons for the fall of the Western Roman Empire, they played a big role. Rome of the times of good emperors, perhaps, could withstand the onslaught of the Great Migration of Nations, the state, weakened by the crisis, could not cope with this task. On the other hand, it was the barbaric onslaught that led to the aggravation of the crisis and did not give time to overcome it. Therefore, it is really impossible to separate internal and external causes; their combination led to the fall of the Western Roman Empire.

5. What was the spiritual crisis of Roman society? Why did the Christian church become a cohesive organization that became an influential political and economic force?

The spiritual crisis was expressed in the growing popularity of numerous non-traditional cults for Roman society. And it is not only about Christianity and Mithraism, Eastern cults of various kinds flourished in large numbers.

In the context of a long crisis of confidence in tomorrow did not exist in all strata of society. Christianity gave this certainty regarding, if not this world, but the future. Because of this, many representatives of the privileged strata of society became Christians. They introduced many elements of the Roman civil order into the Christian church, which made church life more orderly and structured. The beginning of the persecution of Christians activated this structure and rallied the Christian church, which was trying to resist the persecution. Given that this church united many people from the upper strata of society, it disposed of their capital and political influence, becoming a powerful force in the state.

6. Make a detailed response plan on the topic "The Fall of the Western Roman Empire."

1. Strengthening the onslaught of peoples from the stream of the Great Migration to the borders of the Roman Empire.

2. Permission for the Visigoths to settle in Roman territory.

3. The uprising of the Visigoths in 378 and their successful actions against the Roman troops.

4. The final division of the Roman Empire into Western and Eastern after the death of Theodosius the Great in 395

5. Settlement of new barbarian tribes on Roman territory and their uprisings.

6. Periodic uprisings of the Roman generals (over time, more and more often from among the barbarians), their attempts to usurp the throne.

7. Fight against the invasion of the Huns.

8. Board in the Western Roman Empire often replaced by weak, often juvenile emperors.

9. Coup Odoacer, the end of the Western Roman Empire.

1. What period is called the golden age of the Roman Empire? With the activities of which emperors is the power of the empire associated?

Marc Koktsei Nerva (96-98):

Mark Ulpiy Trayan (98-117):

Publius Aelius Hadrian (117-138):

Antoninus Pius (138-161):

Marcus Aurelius (161-180).

2. Specify the economic and political reasons for the crisis of the Roman Empire. How did the economic structure and social structure of Roman society and the rights of its citizens change?

Causes of the crisis of the Roman Empire.

The fall in average annual temperatures led to a crisis in agriculture.

Civil wars that lasted for several decades disrupted economic ties between the provinces, making unprofitable commodity farms that had previously flourished large latifundia, most farms became subsistence, an economically unified empire was no longer needed with subsistence farming.

The seemingly endless streak of disasters led to a spiritual crisis in the empire, as a result of which new cults gained popularity, the main of which were Mithraism and Christianity.

3. Consider: what were the goals of the administrative reforms of Diocletian and Constantine?

4. Fill in the table. What factors do you think played a decisive role in the decline of Rome?

5. What was the spiritual crisis of Roman society? Why did the Christian church become a cohesive organization that became an influential political and economic force?

In the conditions of a long crisis, all strata of society did not have confidence in the future. Christianity gave this certainty regarding, if not this world, but the future. Because of this, many representatives of the privileged strata of society became Christians. They introduced many elements of the Roman civil order into the Christian church, which made church life more orderly and structured. The beginning of the persecution of Christians activated this structure and rallied the Christian church, which was trying to resist the persecution. Given that this church united many people from the upper strata of society, it disposed of their capital and political influence, becoming a powerful force in the state.

6. Make a detailed response plan on the topic "The Fall of the Western Roman Empire."

1. Strengthening the onslaught of peoples from the stream of the Great Migration to the borders of the Roman Empire.

2. Permission for the Visigoths to settle in Roman territory.

3. The uprising of the Visigoths in 378 and their successful actions against the Roman troops.

4. The final division of the Roman Empire into Western and Eastern after the death of Theodosius the Great in 395

5. Settlement of new barbarian tribes on Roman territory and their uprisings.

6. Periodic uprisings of the Roman generals (over time, more and more often from among the barbarians), their attempts to usurp the throne.

7. Fight against the invasion of the Huns.

8. Board in the Western Roman Empire often replaced by weak, often juvenile emperors.

9. Coup Odoacer, the end of the Western Roman Empire.

ANCIENT WORLD HISTORY:
East, Greece, Rome/
I.A. Ladynin and others.
Moscow: Eksmo, 2004

Section IV

Age of the Early Empire (principate)

Chapter XV.

"Golden Age" of the Roman Empire (96-192)

At this time, the ideological attitudes that determined the relationship between power and society changed radically. On the edge I-II centuries. Among the Greco-Roman intellectual elite, there is a reassessment of values in relation to the principate as a system of sole power: the philosophical opposition with its criticism of absolute power and the abuses associated with it has been replaced by a theoretical justification of the monarchy as the best form of government, headed by a virtuous princeps, who in its activities are guided by the interests of citizens and considerations of supreme justice. This theory was embodied in 4 speeches "On royal power" by Dion Chrysostom and in the "Panegyric" by Pliny the Younger (100).

Trajan largely corresponded to the image of the ideal princeps created by Greek and Roman intellectuals. He was an outstanding statesman - a sensible politician, a capable military leader and an experienced administrator, a modest, simple and accessible person, alien to lust for power, a styazh8. desire and passion for pleasure. In his policy, he focused mainly on the Senate, the army and the provincial nobility. The emperor had a constructive dialogue with the Senate, placing its legislative activity under the control of his administration. The army was an obedient and effective instrument of the princeps' policy. Trajan paid considerable attention to the life of the provinces, strictly controlling the activities of the governors. Many noble provincials under him were included in the senate. This meant that the provinces finally ceased to be the objects of the robbery of the imperial authorities and became organic components of the Roman state.

Against the background of the economic recovery of the provinces, the decline of the Italian economy was all the more noticeable. To provide effective assistance to the impoverished rural population, the first Antonins created the so-called. alimentary system: the state allocated a monetary fund, from which loans were issued at 5% per annum for investment in the economy. The interest received was used to pay benefits to orphans and the children of the poor. The alimentary system contributed not only to the revival of Italian agriculture, but also to the preparation of human reserves for the Roman army.

The stabilization of the internal political and economic situation of the empire created the prerequisites for an active foreign policy. Trajan brought the number of legions to 30. During the military campaigns of 101-103 and 105-107. a huge Roman army led by the emperor himself conquered the strong Dacian kingdom of Decebalus. Dacia became a province. The conquest of Dacia with its fertile soils, gold mines and natural salt reserves was Trajan's most important foreign policy action, both from an economic and military-strategic point of view. Huge booty allowed the emperor to make generous gifts and distributions to the Praetorians, the army and the plebs, to arrange grandiose spectacles in Rome that lasted 123 days, harassment and gladiator fights, and to launch active construction: magnificent Trajan’s baths, a new water supply system and a luxurious forum of Trajan from 30 -meter column topped with a statue of the emperor.

After the conquest of Dacia, Trajan began to prepare for war with Parthia: he wanted to oust the Parthians from Mesopotamia and subjugate Armenia. Having set out on a campaign in the autumn of 113, the next year he occupied Armenia and turned it into a province, and in 115-116. defeated the troops of the Parthian king Vologez IV, captured his capital Ctesiphon and conquered all of Mesopotamia up to the coast of the Persian Gulf. However, the length of communications, the dissatisfaction of the local population with the Roman occupation, and serious unrest in the eastern provinces forced Trajan to withdraw the legions beyond the Euphrates. Huge material costs were in vain: the newly conquered lands in the East could not be retained. On the way to Italy (in Cilicia), 64-year-old Trajan fell ill and died in August 117. Despite the failure of the eastern expedition of 114-117, the Romans kept a good memory of Trajan: since then, it has become a custom in Rome to wish the new emperor "to be happier than Augustus and better than Trajan."

Trajan's heir was his cousin and adopted son, 41-year-old Publius Aelius Adrian (117-138). He became a worthy successor to the "best princeps": a well-educated man, a brilliant administrator and an experienced military man, a reasonable and far-sighted politician, the new emperor was at the height of understanding the tasks that confronted him. In particular, realizing the futility of the aggressive policy in the East and the complete depletion of state resources, Adrian concluded a peace treaty with Parthia on the terms of restoring the status quo (the border was fixed along the Euphrates) and began the construction of a powerful defensive line on the eastern borders of the empire. Thanks to the measures taken, peace with Parthia was maintained for 44 years.

Having completed business in the East, Hadrian took up a similar arrangement of the empire's borders in Europe and Africa. Grandiose work on the construction of border fortifications, called limes, began everywhere. It was a system of small fortresses, forts and field camps, between which a ditch was dug and a rampart was poured, fortified with a wall or palisade (behind them was a road for the operational transfer of troops). The large-scale construction of defensive fortifications on the border meant the empire's abandonment of the policy of permanent aggression against its neighbors and the transition to strategic defense at all frontiers.

Adrian took care of maintaining the army in a state of constant combat readiness. He authorized the replenishment of the legions at the expense of provincials who did not have Roman or Latin citizenship, since the number of citizens willing to serve in the army was constantly decreasing. Thus, the basis for the barbarization of the Roman military machine was created, which soon entailed serious socio-political consequences.

provincial administration was organized. The emperor exercised constant control over the activities of the governors. From time to time curators (curatores) from Rome visited the provinces with inspections. A state post office was established, arrears were forgiven, and the system of payouts was abolished. Adrian developed the alimentary system and took a number of effective measures to revive Italy's agriculture. Finally, he streamlined legal proceedings: by his order, in 130, the lawyer Salvius Julian, on the basis of praetor edicts, developed the so-called. Eternal Edict (Edictum perpetuum), published on behalf of Hadrian himself. Since then, judicial law-making has become the exclusive prerogative of the emperor.

Hadrian traveled frequently and built a lot (especially in Greece). A well-known admirer of Greek culture, an intellectual and esthete, he became famous for his love of art and refined taste, leaving to his descendants a magnificent architectural ensemble of a villa in Tibur with an area of 121.5 hectares, a grandiose temple of Venus and Roma, the famous Roman Pantheon and other buildings. Adrian did a lot for the development of urban life.

One of the few bursts of socio-political tension during his reign was the uprising in Judea led by Simon Bar Kochba (132-135). Towards the end of his life, suffering from a serious illness, Adrian executed several senators without trial, thereby incurring universal hatred. In July 138, the 62-year-old emperor died and was buried in a huge round mausoleum (now the Castel Sant'Angelo in Rome). He was replaced on the throne by the 52-year-old Antoninus Pius (138-161) adopted by him, who gave the name to the entire dynasty. He achieved the deification of the late Hadrian from the Senate, for which he received the honorific nickname Pius ("Pious").

Having inherited from his adoptive father a state in a state of prosperity and stability, Antoninus Pius continued the policy of his predecessor and succeeded in this. During the reign of this noble and humane emperor, the Romans for a long time forgot what arbitrariness and abuse of power are. It was a rare period of relative prosperity and prosperity for the empire. The emperor issued a number of decrees that regulated the relationship between slaves and their masters: in particular, from now on, the master was responsible for the murder of a slave or ill-treatment; the law provided for slaves to engage in commerce, to have a family, and to enter into business relations with masters. Adhering to a peaceful policy, Antoninus Pius nevertheless had to fight a lot: his legates defeated the British and Moors, Germans and Dacians, suppressed unrest in the provinces and repelled barbarian raids. The meek and virtuous ruler died in March 161 at the age of 75, having transferred power to the co-rulers adopted by him - 40-year-old Marcus Aurelius (161-180) and 30-year-old Lucius Verus (161-169). The latter led a wild life and did not take part in the management of the empire.

A refined intellectual, Marcus Aurelius went down in history as a philosopher on the throne (after him, the philosophical work “To Himself” written in Greek remained). He was a man of duty, who put the interests of the state above all else and was fully aware of his responsibility for the fate of the empire. Under him, the quantitative and qualitative growth of the imperial bureaucracy continued. The emperor himself was actively involved in legal proceedings. His relations with the senatorial and equestrian estates were ideal. Marcus Aurelius, like his predecessors, brought into the Senate many noble provincials, especially of Eastern and African origin.

The emperor-philosopher continued the policy of distributions and circuses for the capital's plebs, preserved the alimentary system and, on the whole, quite successfully ensured internal political stability. His legates easily suppressed uprisings in Britain and Egypt, and when in 175 the best commander of the empire, Gaius Avidius Cassius, raised a rebellion in the East, the emperor reacted to this event with a characteristic phrase: “We don’t live so badly so that he can win ". Soon Cassius was killed by his own soldiers, and the rebellion ended. During the 19 years of his reign, not a single conspiracy was organized against Marcus Aurelius.

At the same time, the peace-loving and humane emperor had to wage difficult wars that threatened the state with major troubles. In 161-165 years. with varying success there was a war with the Parthians, who invaded Armenia and Syria. Having ousted the Parthians from there, the Roman legions occupied a significant part of Mesopotamia, but they could not gain a foothold in it and were forced to retreat. Nevertheless, in 166, Roman diplomats managed to conclude an advantageous peace treaty with Parthia, according to which Northern Mesopotamia became part of the empire, and Armenia entered the sphere of Roman influence.

In 167, taking advantage of the difficult position of Rome in connection with the Parthian War, the plague epidemic and crop failures in Italy, the Germanic tribes of the Quads and Marcomanni, who belonged to the Suebi confederation, as well as the Sarmatians, broke through the Rhine-Danube border and invaded Northern Italy (First Marcomannic War, 167-175). To save Italy, the Senate, as during the war with Hannibal, took emergency measures: even robbers, slaves and gladiators were mobilized into the army, and Marcus Aurelius himself sold off part of the imperial property in order to raise funds for equipping the troops. In 169 the Romans ousted the barbarians from Italy. Subsequently, the Roman legions cleared the Danubian provinces of the enemy and crossed the Danube. In 175, peace was concluded, according to which the Germanic and Sarmatian tribes were under the Roman protectorate. However, the barbarians soon resumed their raids, and in 177 Marcus Aurelius was forced to start the Second Marcomannic War (177-180). The onslaught of the barbarians was repulsed, the situation on the border stabilized. In March 180, at the age of 59, Marcus Aurelius died of the plague in the city of Vindobona (modern Vienna). In Rome, a column was erected in honor of the emperor, crowned with his statue.

Marcus Aurelius was succeeded by his 18-year-old son Commodus (180-192), the last representative of the Antonine dynasty. He was a rude, cruel and voluptuous despot. After the death of his father, Commodus concluded a peace treaty with the Quadi and Marcomanni, after which he immediately departed for Rome, where he entrusted the administration of the state to his greedy slanderers, and indulged in wild revelry, drunkenness and debauchery. Having executed his wife, he started a harem. Distinguished by extraordinary physical strength and strong physique, the emperor proclaimed himself the Roman Hercules, appeared in public in the skin of a lion and with a club on his shoulder, personally participated in the persecution of wild animals and performed in the arena of the amphitheater as a gladiator. Completely distraught, Commodus renamed all the months of the calendar in his honor and even called Rome "the city of Commodus."

After a failed attempt on his life (183), the emperor was imbued with a fierce hatred for the senate and attacked the senatorial class with repressions. A long string of executions and disgrace followed. To get money for spectacles and entertainment, Commodus, following the example of Caligula and Nero, resorted to extortion and confiscations. The dissolute emperor was imitated by his entourage. Arbitrariness, extortion, the sale of posts and sentences reigned in Rome. The relative order in the provinces was maintained by the legates, who had to suppress the uprisings of the Dacians and Moors, unrest in Pannonia and Britain. Dissatisfaction with the tyranny of the august madman swept the widest sections of the population. Finally, on the last day of 192, Commodus was killed as a result of a conspiracy organized by his mistress and head of the guard. In a fit of jubilation, the senate ordered the overthrow of the statues of Commodus and the destruction of all memory of him.