Working time costs, their study and measurement. Basic methods for studying working time costs. The Importance of Time Study

The study of working time costs is carried out directly at workplaces with the aim of improving the organization of labor and production, developing norms and standards using an analytical and research method.

Observations for studying the cost of working time and time of use of equipment differ in types, methods and methods of their implementation, as well as in methods of registration and forms of recording the results.

Depending on the purpose of studying working time costs, types of observations are distinguished:

Time use photography;

Timing;

Photochronometry.

Observations can be carried out by direct measurements or by the method of momentary observations.

The direct measurement method involves measuring the duration of time spent. The method of momentary observations involves recording the number of moments of implementation of one or another type of working time expenditure and determining, on the basis of these data, the specific weight and absolute value of individual cost elements in the total costs during the observation period.

The method of direct time measurements, depending on the method of their implementation, has three varieties: continuous, selective and cyclic.

According to the method of conducting observation and recording the results obtained, according to the technology used, the study of working time costs can be of three types:

Visual (the observer manually records the results according to the readings of time devices, as well as counters of the number of cases (moments) of time spent);

Automatic (observation is carried out using technical means without the participation of an observer);

Combined (registration of observation results is carried out with the participation of an observer and using technical means).

The results of observations can be recorded using various forms of recording: digital, index, graphic, combined, as well as video images of not only the object of observation, but also the entire working environment.

With the help of direct time measurements, all types of observations can be made (photography of time use, timing, photo timing, as well as all varieties of these observations).

The disadvantages of the method of direct time measurements (continuous observations), which limit the scope of its application, include:

Long duration and labor intensity of conducting observations and processing the results obtained;

Inability for one person to monitor large groups of workers.

The disadvantages of the momentary observation method include the fact that when using this method, only average values of working time spent on a large number of workers are obtained.

Time use photography.

Depending on the objects of observation, time use photography has three types: photography of working time; photograph of equipment in use; photograph of the production process.

Depending on the form of labor organization at the workplaces under study and the number of objects of observation, photography can be individual or team (multi-tool operator).

If a photograph of working time is taken by the person performing the work himself, it is called self-photography.

Working time photo(FRV) - a type of observation in which all, without exception, time expenditures carried out by the performer (performers) for a certain period of work (several shifts, a shift or part thereof) are measured.

The FRF is carried out for the purpose of:

Identification of shortcomings in the organization of labor and production, leading to direct losses or irrational expenditure of working time, and on this basis the development of organizational and technical measures to eliminate the identified shortcomings;

Studying, generalizing and disseminating advanced production experience on the use of working time;

Obtaining initial data for the development of labor standards (standards: time, output, number, service);

Identifying the reasons for non-fulfillment or significant over-fulfillment of production (time) standards by employees.

Carrying out FRF, like other types of observations, consists of four main stages:

Preparation for observation;

Conducting surveillance;

In order to obtain more reliable results, it is recommended to carry out FRF using the method of continuous observations of at least 3 work shifts.

Momentary Observation Method– a type of study of working time costs in which the researcher, bypassing workplaces along a certain route, records the actions of workers using indices. In this case, it is not the time spent that is recorded, but the number of repetitions of various cost categories. This method is used when studying the use of working time of a large group of workers (teams, sections, workshops, etc.).

The more moments are recorded, the more reliable the results of the PDF will be.

Photo of the production process– is carried out with the aim of studying the costs of the contractor’s working time and the time of use of the equipment in their relationship. In this case, observations are recorded on two forms (on the form of the individual FRF of the performer and on the form of photographs of the time of use of the equipment) and then processed jointly. Photography of the production process can be carried out using the method of continuous observations or the method of momentary observations.

If the PDF is carried out to identify losses of working time, as well as equipment downtime, then it is better to use the method of momentary observations.

Self photography- carried out by the employee himself, in which only losses of working time are identified and recorded, the reasons for their occurrence are noted and ways to eliminate them are indicated.

Timing– this type of observation in which cyclically repeating elements of operational work (operations), as well as individual elements of preparatory and final work or work to maintain the workplace, are studied.

The purpose of timing is:

Establishing time standards and obtaining data for developing time standards;

Study and implementation of advanced techniques and methods of work;

Checking the quality of current standards;

Identifying the reasons for non-fulfillment or significant over-fulfillment of production (time) standards by employees;

Improving the organization of the labor process in the workplace.

Photochronometry(photo accounting) is a combined method of studying time expenditure that combines the methods of photography and timing. In this case, all the worker’s actions are recorded using the photography method, and the worker’s actions that directly constitute the labor operation are recorded using the timing method. Photo timing is used for the same purposes as photography and timing.

2.5.1 Taking individual photographs of working hours

method of continuous observations

With an individual photograph of working time (FW), the subject of study, as a rule, is the working time spent by one worker working at one workplace.

Taking an individual photograph of working hours consists of four main stages:

Preparation for observation;

Conducting surveillance;

Processing of observation data;

Analysis of the results and preparation of proposals to eliminate identified deficiencies, improve the organization of production or establish standards and labor standards.

In preparation for observation, the technological process performed by one worker, whose working hours are the subject of study, the organization of work at the workplace, the procedure for servicing the workplace, technical characteristics, operating modes and the condition of the equipment are studied. Before starting the observation, general information about the equipment and the worker is entered into the observation card.

Observation and measurement are carried out according to the current time. The observation sheet indicates all the performer’s actions and breaks in work in the order in which they actually occur, while simultaneously recording the current end time of each type of working time.

To obtain results with a high degree of reliability, it is recommended to conduct 3 to 6 FERs at the beginning, middle and end of the work week.

An observation sheet for an individual photograph of working time is drawn up according to the form given in Table 2.1.

	Table 2.1-	Observation sheet of individual photograph of working hours.
What we observed	Current time, hour. min	Overlapping time, min.	Duration, min.	Time expenditure category index	Note

Start of shift
1.
2.
Lunch break
15.
16.
End of shift
Total:			*
Produced during the shift - ____ units. products
* The duration must correspond to the length of the work shift.

Processing a photograph of working time begins with calculating the duration of working time for each of the marked categories of its costs, by subtracting the current time of the previous measurement from the current time of each subsequent measurement. Then, the working time costs are indexed in accordance with the accepted classification (for example, in accordance with the “Classification of the working time costs of the work performer” given in Appendix A).

Further processing consists of compiling a summary of the same working time costs, as shown in Table 2.2.

Then a working time balance is drawn up. When drawing up project time costs, all time losses caused by: deficiencies in the organization of production and technical reasons, random work and violations of labor discipline, etc. are excluded.

The balance of working time costs is shown in Table 2.3.

When analyzing the costs of working time of the performer, standardized and non-standardized costs of working time are established, the reasons causing irrational and unnecessary time spent are studied, and measures are developed to eliminate them.

Based on the balance of working time costs, the possible

increase in shift productivity, if all losses of working time are eliminated:

ΔР = (Top.pr – Top.ph) × 100 / Top.ph, (2.11)

where Top.f is the actual cost of operational time;

Top.pr – design costs of operational time.

2.5.2 Taking photographs of working hours using the moment method

observations

The method of momentary observations is used when studying the use of working time of large groups of workers (teams, sections, workshops, etc.) and is a type of study of working time costs in which the researcher, bypassing workplaces along a certain route, uses indices to record the actions of workers . In this case, it is not the time spent that is recorded, but the number of repetitions of various cost categories.

In addition to the usual preparation for the FWF, in the preparatory period, a workaround route and points for recording the costs of workers’ working time, or work and equipment downtime – fixing points are outlined.

An observation sheet is prepared before the start of observation; it indicates: the number of employees (surnames) whose activities are being monitored and the current time at established intervals.

Walk-through intervals are selected so that they do not have any pattern relative to the production cycle and are of the nature of a random sample. These intervals (the start time of walking around workplaces) can be determined using mathematical tables of random numbers, which ensure that the determination of the moment of starting the crawl is independent of the will and desire of the observer. This type of observation requires certain preparation, which consists of the following:

The required number of fixed moments M is determined;

The length of the route to bypass workplaces is determined (SOBH);

The number of moments observed in one round (m O) is determined;

The duration of one round is calculated (T OBX);

The number of moments recorded during one work shift (m SM) is calculated;

The number of shifts required for observation is determined (n SM).

The number of moments (observations) providing sufficient reliability of the results is calculated using the formula:

M = K 2 x (1 – d) × 100 2 / (d × η 2 OH), (2.12)

where d is the share of the studied category of working time costs in the total costs during the observation period;

K – coefficient depending on a given probability (for large-scale production - 2, for small-scale and single production - 3);

η OH – permissible value of relative observation error (from 3 to 10%).

The value is calculated based on observational data that were carried out previously. The value of η OH is determined based on the specified accuracy and the share of costs d. With a small proportion of working time spent, the value of η OH can be increased without significantly reducing the accuracy of the observation results.

The duration of one round (T OBH) is calculated by the formula:

T OBX = S OBX × 0.01 / 0.6, (2.13)

where SOBH is the length of the route to bypass workplaces, m;

0.6 – average length of one step, m;

0.01 – average duration of one step, min.

The number of SM moments m recorded per shift is determined by the formula:

m SM = (T SM × K OBH) / T OBH, (2.14)

where T SM – shift duration, min.;

K OBH - a coefficient that takes into account the discrepancy in round trip times (deviations), is accepted within the range of 0.5 ÷ 0.7 K.

The number of work shifts n SM, during which it is necessary to conduct observation, is calculated:

n SM = M / m SM, (2.15)

Observations are carried out while walking around workplaces along a predetermined route. Having reached the fixed point, the observer determines what the worker is doing at the moment and notes the results on the observation form. The number of cases (moments) of repetition of one or another type of working time expenditure is recorded using symbols that facilitate the observation process. The forms of maps depend on the method of conducting observations, their frequency, the number of elements studied, the purposes of the study and a number of other conditions.

If detailing the cost of working time by performer or the time spent using equipment by machine is not required, it is advisable to record moments of observation using points and lines for each type of cost of working time.

In this case, the observer, having reached the fixing point, records what the worker is doing at the moment. This is done by making marks on an observation sheet in the form of dots and lines. The first four marks are made with dots forming a contour, the next ones are made with vertical, horizontal and diagonal lines. Such a square with diagonals makes ten recorded moments. Next, the order of marking is repeated (see table 2.4)

Table 2.4 -	Observation sheet of a moment photograph of working time with a system of notation by dots
Name of working time costs	Note on observation results	Total moments	%

1. Preparatory and final time, PZ	: :…	19	6,3
2. Operational work, OP	: : …	38	12,6
3. Technological breaks, PT	: : …	7	2,3
etc.
TOTAL:		300	100
Watched	Mikhailov M.M.	date	7.10.04

Processing of observation results begins with counting the number of observation moments for each type of working time expenditure. Then the sum of observation moments for all types of time spent is calculated and the share (in percentage) of each type of working time spent is determined.

Analysis of the results and development of organizational and technical measures are carried out in the same way as with photography of working time carried out by the method of continuous observations.

When the purpose of observation is to obtain not only general data on the structure of working time costs or equipment operation as a whole for a team, section, but also for each worker or machine, an index notation system is used for each element being studied (see Table 2.5).

Table 2.5 -	Observation sheet of a moment photograph of working time with an index notation system
Periodicity	Worker's name (or machine number)
Hour.	Min.	Route No.	Ivanov	Petrov	Sidorov	etc.
Working time index

7	00	1	PZ	PZ	OP
7	05
7	20
7	25	2	PZ	OP	OP
7	40
etc.
Date of observation	07.11.04	Watched	Mikhailov M.M.

In this case, processing the results of momentary observations begins with compiling a summary of time spent by summing the number of records with the same designation for each worker or equipment and multiplying the resulting amounts by the value of the accepted interval. Determination of each category of working time costs and drawing up a balance of working time is carried out both for individual objects of observation and for a team of workers.

2.5.3 Self-photograph of working hours

Self-photography of working hours is carried out by the worker himself. In this case, only losses of working time are identified, the reasons for their occurrence are noted and ways to eliminate them are indicated. This type of observation is effective if self-photographs are carried out systematically, cover large groups of workers and serve as the basis for developing measures to improve the organization of production and labor.

During the observation, in the self-photograph of working time card, the employee writes down the reason for breaks in work, their start and end times, and his proposals for eliminating losses of working time.

The self-photograph of working time is shown in Table 2.6.

Front side
Reasons for lost working time	Current time	Break value	Index *
Start	Ending

1. Waiting for delivery of workpieces	8-00	8-12	12
2. Lack of electricity	9-20	9-28	8
3. Waiting for the locksmith on duty	11-37	11-47	10
etc.
TOTAL	-	-		-
(Back side of observation sheet)
No.	Suggestions for eliminating downtime and unproductive work	Responsible for elimination and deadline**

1.	Deliver workpieces before the start of the shift
	etc.
Employee signature	date
* Column 5 is filled in when processing the results. ** To be completed by a superior manager.

Processing observation cards consists of systematizing all records of breaks in work according to the accepted classification of working time costs, summarizing proposals made by employees and developing measures to eliminate them.

2.5.4 Carrying out timing

Carrying out timing consists of the same stages as conducting FRF, i.e. of four main stages:

Preparation for observation;

Conducting surveillance;

Processing of observation data;

Analysis of results and establishment of standards and labor standards.

The accuracy of time measurements when conducting timing observations depends on the duration of the execution of the studied elements of the operation. When the duration of the operation elements is up to 10 s. It is recommended to carry out measurements with an accuracy of up to 0.1 s, with a duration of up to 1 min. – up to 0.2 s., more than 1 min. – up to 1 s. Accordingly, a stopwatch is required for timing. The error in recording time spent is allowed within 5%.

In preparation for timing, familiarization with the operation that is subject to timing is carried out, its structure and methods of implementation are studied. The operation is then broken down into its constituent elements. The beginning and end of each element of the operation are determined, i.e. fixing points. When observing the current time, the fixing point of the end of the element is also the starting point of the subsequent element. The accuracy of the timing results depends on the correct division of the operation into elements and the correct installation of fixing points. Elements of the operation and fixing points are entered into the timing card shown in Table 2.7.

There are three possible methods of timing: continuous, when all elements of operational time are measured (“according to current time”); selective – when individual elements of the operation are measured; cyclic - when elements of an operation are examined that have a very short duration, which does not allow them to be visually measured without combining them into groups.

The “current time” method is most often used, because this does not require stopping the stopwatch and the timing results are more accurate.

The number of measurements that must be taken during one observation is determined in accordance with Table 2.8.

Table 2.8 -	Required number of measurements for one time observation
	The nature of the work and the degree of participation of the worker in it	Duration of the work element, s
	up to 15	From 15 to 60	over 60
	Machine	8 - 10	8 - 10	5 - 9
	Machine-manual	22 - 26	18 - 21	14 - 18
	Manual	37 - 42	26 -30	21 - 26

At many enterprises, the pace of work is assessed. This is due to the fact that during the timing period it sometimes differs significantly from usual. In this case, deviations can be intentional (for example, slowing down the pace of work during timekeeping in order to establish a lower production rate), or caused by an unusual environment for the worker.

Time measurements are recorded in a special timing card, a sample of which is given in Appendix B.

During the timing process, the observer must monitor the sequence in which the worker performs each element of the operation, mark the start and end times of the elements of the operation, in accordance with the accepted fixing points. In case of deviation from the normal course of the process, the numbers of elements and measurements when these deviations occurred are noted in the “defective measurements” column. In this case, the reasons for deviations from the normal course of the process are indicated.

After carrying out the required number of timing measurements, the timing observations are processed and time is calculated for the elements of the operation.

As a result of carrying out timing measurements and after excluding defective measurements from them, a timing series is obtained.

Time series– a series consisting of the durations of an operation element obtained as a result of timing observation.

With continuous timing, to obtain a time sequence for each element of the operation, the execution time of the previous element of the operation is subtracted from the current execution time of this element of the operation.

Then the actual stability coefficient of the chronosequence is determined (the ratio of the maximum value of the chronosequence to the minimum) and compared with the standard one. Standard values of stability coefficients are taken, as a rule, from the “Methodological basis for rationing the labor of workers in the national economy” or from any “Handbook on labor rationing”. The actual value of the chronosequence stability coefficient should not exceed the standard value. Otherwise, observations must be repeated.

Standard time series stability factors are given in Table 2.9.

Table 2.9 -	Standard time series stability coefficients
	Type of production at a given workplace and duration of the work element, s	Standard time series stability coefficient
	during machine operation	during machine-manual work	when monitoring the operation of equipment	when working manually
	Bulk:
	to 10	1,2	1,5	1,5	2,0
	over 10	1,1	1,2	1,3	1,5
	Large-scale:
	to 10	1,2	1,6	1,8	2,3
	over 10	1,1	1,3	1,5	1,7
	Serial:
	to 10	1,2	2,0	2,0	2,5
	over 10	1,1	1,6	1,8	2,3
	Small-scale and one-off	1,2	2,0	2,5	3,0

Further processing of the observation results consists of determining the average duration of each element of the operation. It is established as the arithmetic mean of all valid measurements in the time series. The operational time of the operation as a whole is determined.

An example of a timing card, the procedure for processing timing series and calculating time for operation elements is given in Appendix B.

The shift production rate (Nv), taking into account the timing results, is determined:

Nv = (Tsm – Tpz – Tom – Totl) / top; units/shift (2.16)

The indices correspond to the indices given in the table for the classification of working time costs (Appendix A).

When organizing labor, two tasks related to the study of labor processes are of greatest importance. First - determination of the actual time spent on performing elements of operations (labor movements, actions, techniques, etc.). Second - establishing the structure of time spent during a work shift or part of it.

Determining the duration of the elements of operations is necessary for developing time standards, choosing the most rational labor methods, establishing the components of time standards, and analyzing the quality of standards and standards. Data on the structure of working time costs are used in developing standards for workplace service time and preparatory and final time, assessing the efficiency of using working time, and analyzing the existing organization of labor and production at the enterprise.

The study of labor processes should be carried out taking into account the fact that the time spent on performing an element of an operation or a certain type of work depends on many organizational, technical and psychophysiological factors that usually cannot be fully controlled. In particular, measuring the duration of the same element of an operation under the same conditions gives a number of values that in most cases do not coincide with each other, i.e. the results of this measurement will form a variation series. Therefore, in order to obtain reliable conclusions about the duration of elements of operations and the structure of working time costs, methods of organizing and processing observations should be used that allow taking into account the probabilistic nature of the processes under study.

The classification of methods for studying working time costs is presented in Table 1.

Table 1 - Classification of methods for studying working time costs

Classification sign	Research method
Purpose of the study	- photograph of working hours; - timing; - photographic timing
Number of observed objects	- individual; - group; - route
Research form	- direct time measurements; - method of momentary observations
Data recording form	- continuous, continuous observation; - selective observation; - cyclic observation
Type of observation	- visual; - using automatic metering devices
Observer	- outside observer; - the performer himself
Entry form	- digital; - index; - graphic; - photography, filming

As we see, In accordance with the purpose of the study, the following research methods are distinguished : timing, photograph of working hours, photo timing. We will look at them in more detail.

Timing - this is a method of studying the cost of operational time by observing and measuring the duration of individual elements of the operation that are repeated during the production of each product. Time-lapse observations make it possible to identify reserves associated with the time required to complete operational work.

Depending on the objectives of the study and the characteristics of labor processes, there are various methods for conducting timekeeping, photography of working time, and phototiming.

Timing can be continuous (according to current time), selective and cyclic. When conducting timing observations based on the current time, all elements of the work are examined in the order in which they are performed. Selective timing is used to study individual elements of operations, regardless of their sequence.

In cases where it is difficult to accurately measure the time spent on elements of an operation that have a short duration (from 3 to 5 seconds), cyclic timing is used, when successive techniques are combined into groups with different compositions of the elements being studied. Based on measurements of the duration of execution of these groups, the duration of each element of the operation included in them is determined.

The main stages of timing are :

Preparation for timing (observation objects are selected, the operation is divided into elements, fixation points are established, the number of observations is determined, documentation is filled out);

Observation (timing observations must be carried out twice during the work shift: the first - approximately 1 hour after the start of work, the second - 1.5-2 hours before the end of work, with the completion of observation no later than half an hour before the end of the shift);

Processing and analysis of the obtained time series values (elimination of erroneous measurements, determination of the stability coefficient of the time series and comparison with the standard, determination of the average duration for each element of the operation as the ratio of the sum of the duration values of the elements of the stable time series to the number of high-quality observations in the time series);

Analysis of the rationality of the production process (possibilities are identified for eliminating ineffective elements of operations, overlapping with machine time some of the work performed manually);

Establishment of operational time norms by summing the duration of all elements.

An important means of studying the organization of labor and production is working time photograph (FW) . There are many types of photophotographs - individual, group, self-photographs, photography of equipment use, photography of the production process.

When conducting an individual FRF, all working time costs without exception are measured and recorded, and especially carefully, time lost for various reasons. An individual photograph of working hours is carried out for the purpose of :

Identifying lost working time, establishing their causes and developing measures to eliminate and improve the organization of labor and production;
- studying the experience of workers achieving better labor results and disseminating it;
- establishing standards for equipment maintenance and standards for the number of workers;
- development of standards for preparatory and final time, time for servicing the workplace and regulated breaks;
- obtaining initial data for establishing operational time standards for manual work in single and small-scale production;
- identifying the reasons for non-compliance with standards.

The main stages of working time photography are : preparation, conduct, processing of observation results, their analysis and development of measures to improve the use of working time.

During the period of preparation for observation, it is necessary to study the technological process, the organization of the workplace, the procedure for its maintenance, the division and cooperation of labor between groups of workers. Photography for the purpose of studying lost working time is carried out to study the organization of labor for which the standards are calculated.

When taking direct photographs of working time in the observation sheet (Table 2) throughout the whole shift (or part of it), all working time costs without exception are continuously recorded.

Based on the data obtained, a summary of the time spent by workers is compiled (Table 3). Next, the observation results are analyzed. At the same time, irrational costs and losses of working time are determined. Their reasons are established.

In the process of analysis, the actual costs of preparatory and final time, organizational and technical maintenance time are compared with the standard ones, which are determined on the basis of the design of the most effective workplace maintenance system.

The required time for rest and personal needs per shift is established on the basis of industry standards for given working conditions and the design of a rational work and rest regime. After this, actual and projected (normative) balances of working time costs are compiled.

When drawing up a normative balance, all losses and waste of working time are eliminated, thereby increasing operational time . A comparison of the actual and normative (rational) balances allows us to determine the possible increase in labor productivity for each proposal aimed at eliminating losses and unproductive costs of working time:

K1=[Tnab – (Tpz n+Top n+Tto n+To n)]:Tnab ×100 ; (1)

K2 = (Tnab – Trac):Tnab ×100 , (2)

Where K1 - coefficient of possible compaction of the working day, %;
Tnab – observation time during the working day;
Tpz n – standardized preparatory and final time;
Top n – standardized operating time;
Tto n – standardized time for maintenance;
Tone – standardized time for rest and personal needs;
Trac – rational time;
K2 - coefficient of possible increase in labor productivity, %.

Group photo of working hours carried out in cases where work is performed by a group or team (team) of workers. If the number of workers in a group does not exceed three people and they are in the field of view of the observer, then the method of direct time measurements is used. The procedure for conducting observations is the same as for individual photography, but recording the time spent and summarizing them is carried out for each worker. As a result of the analysis, the structure of the time fund and the efficiency of the division of labor in the unit (team) are established.

When the number of workers is more than three, the observer usually does not have time to record the start and end times of all actions performed by each worker. In these cases, the PDF is carried out using the method of momentary observations with recording of the states of workers and equipment at equal or randomly selected intervals of time.

Momentary Observation Method is based on the use of probability theory and is based on the fact that during observation it is not the time spent that is recorded, but the number of repetitions related to each category of working time spent. To do this, the observer determines: firstly, the volume of observations - the required number of moments that, with the desired degree of probability, can characterize the structure of working time costs; secondly, the route of walking around workplaces and unequal time intervals for starting rounds.

The detour route and fixing points (places along the routes at which the observer makes marks on the observation sheet) are established in advance. The observer, having arrived at the fixing point, notes what is happening at the workplace at the moment. After completing all walkthroughs for each type of cost, the number of moments at which these costs are recorded and their share in the total number of observed moments is calculated.

The method of momentary observations has a number of significant advantages over the method of direct time measurements . The main ones are as follows.

Using momentary observations, you can analyze the structure of working time for almost any number of observed objects. This is important, since establishing the time expenditure of one or two or three workers, as a rule, does not have significant economic significance. The costs of photography will be justified if, based on its results, it is possible to improve the use of working time of a significant group of observation objects.

In addition, this method provides significantly greater reliability of the structure of time spent since, in contrast to the method of direct measurements, when the observer is constantly in close proximity to the observed workers, with momentary observations, recording the states of objects of observation can be carried out in such a way that this will not have any impact any noticeable psychological impact on workers.

For those studying time structure, making moment-to-moment observations is also associated with less mental and physical stress. The results of momentary observations will not become less reliable if observations are interrupted and then continued after several hours or shifts. Experience shows that with momentary observations, the time spent on observers is 5-10 times less than with direct time measurements.

Self photography of the working day is carried out by the employee himself. The purpose of such monitoring is to identify losses of working time through no fault of the employee.

Photo of the time the equipment was used carried out using the same methods as photographs of workers' working days. Its goal is to identify time reserves to improve the use of equipment, establish standards for its performance and maintenance.

So, timing is used to analyze labor methods and determine the duration of repeating elements of operations, photography of working time (FW) is used to establish the structure of its costs during a work shift or part of it, photo timing is used to simultaneously determine the structure of time costs and the duration of individual elements of a production operation.

The analytical and research method of establishing labor standards is based on studying the cost of working time through observations and includes:

direct measurement of time values (timing and photography of the working day);

photographing using the method of instant observations.

Timing - a method of studying the working time costs of repeatedly repeated manual and machine-manual elements of operations by measuring them. Used (mainly) in large-scale and mass production to establish operating standards and verify standards established by calculation. The object of the study is the operation and its elements, and its goal is to establish the main and auxiliary time or time spent on individual work techniques. Timing can be continuous or selective. With continuous timing, its object is all elements of operational time, and with selective timing, individual elements of operational time or a technical operation are measured.

Timing is carried out to obtain data for:

establishing time standards and labor standards, accompanied by improvement of the technological process of standardized work and organization of labor in the workplace.

studying and implementing advanced techniques and methods of work.

checking current standards.

identifying the reasons for non-compliance with standards by individual workers.

Timing is carried out in 4 stages (preparation, observation, processing, analysis):

- In the process of preparing for timing, the observer, depending on the purpose of the observation, must select a worker and psychologically prepare him for the upcoming observation. The observer carries out significant work in preparation for timing: he studies the operation and breaks it down in terms of labor into its component elements (techniques) and sets fixing points; identifies the appropriateness of techniques and their sequence; evaluates the rationality of the workplace layout: determines the required number of measurements during timing and, finally, ensures normal working conditions for the worker.
- During the observation process, the moments of completion of elements (techniques) of the operation are recorded in the chronomap at the current time and all deviations from the normal course of the labor process are noted.
- When processing observation results, the duration of execution of the selected elements of the operation is determined, all defective measurements are excluded, and the quality of observation is determined.

The chronosequence is considered normal if the actual stability coefficient of the chronosequence is less than or equal to the standard one.

When analyzing the observation results, the actual machine time is compared with the standard ones, with the equipment passport, and reserves for its reduction are identified; reserves for reducing auxiliary time are analyzed and opportunities for mechanization of the labor process are sought.

Working day photo - this is an observation carried out to study all the expenditure of working time during a shift or part of it. They can be individual, group, team, etc.

Purpose of the photo:

identification of lost working time.

establishing the causes of losses.

development of measures to eliminate losses.

obtaining data on the need for the number of workers, as well as to create time standards.

- In the process of preparing for observation, the observer is obliged to study the technological process, the organization of the workplace and the procedure for its maintenance; the worker and the workshop administration must be familiar with the purposes and methods of observation. Directly during the observation process, all worker actions and breaks in work are recorded in chronological order. Records of work progress are kept.
- When processing observation results, the duration of each cost element is calculated, the corresponding indices are entered, a summary of the same costs and the actual balance of working time are compiled.
- In the process of analyzing the observation results, the necessity and rationality of individual elements is identified, a projected balance of working time is drawn up, a possible increase in labor productivity is determined, a project of organizational and technical measures is developed to eliminate losses and non-productive costs of working time, and the effectiveness of the proposed measures is calculated.

PDFs differ in two main characteristics: the objects being observed and the methods of conducting and processing the observation. Based on the first criterion, photographs of the use of workers’ working time (individual, group, self-photography), equipment, as well as photographs of the production process are distinguished. In individual photography, the observer studies how time is used by one worker during a work shift or other period of time. Group photography is carried out in cases where work is performed by several workers, in particular with a team organization of work. Self-photography is carried out by the workers themselves, who record the amount of lost working time and the reasons for their occurrence. Photographs of equipment usage time are observations of the efficiency of equipment use and the time spent on servicing by workers.

When photographing the production process, a study is simultaneously carried out of the worker’s working time, the time of use of the equipment and its operating modes.

There are two methods for conducting PDFs: direct time measurements, and when the duration of the observed elements of time expenditure is recorded, and momentary observations, when the states of workplaces are recorded, and the structure of time expenditure is stopped by the number of moments when the corresponding states were noted.

Depending on the purpose of labor process analysis, various technical means are used: stopwatches, chronoscopes, film cameras, television cameras, television cameras, etc.

The method of instant observations allows you to determine the amount of working time spent without resorting to their direct measurement. It is used when observing a large number of objects. The method is based on the use of the principles of probability theory, and its essence is to replace the continuous recording of time during direct measurements (ordinary photographs) by taking into account the number of observed moments.

The data obtained make it possible to determine the specific gravity and absolute values of time spent by elements.

The calculation-analytical method of establishing standards involves the establishment of labor standards based on the application of labor standards and calculation formulas. It allows you to avoid having to resort to time-consuming processes of timing and photography every time. Labor standards are established before the operation is introduced into production, which significantly reduces the costs of establishing them.

Labor standards consist of:

from standards for processing modes and equipment performance.

standards for time spent on completing work elements.

standards of labor costs for servicing a unit of equipment for one worker or team.

To determine most standards, timekeeping and a photograph of the working day are used. Thus, the research method is the basis for labor standardization.

Labor standards are divided into:

into differentiated (elemental) ones.

enlarged.

Differentiated (elemental) standards are established for other methods of labor actions.

Integrated standards are the regulated time spent on performing a set of work practices, combined into one group.

The Importance of Time Study

Classification of working time costs.

Classification of methods and methods for studying working time costs.

Timing

Photo of working hours.

Group FRF.

Momentary observations.

Self photography.

Photochronometry.

Conclusion.

Main stages of observation and data processing.

Regardless of the method and type, all observations consist of four stages:

1. preparation for observation: setting the purpose of observation, selecting the object of observation, selecting the subject based on the purpose of observation, familiarizing with the organizational and technical working conditions and working conditions at the selected objects, filling out observation sheets and checking the technical means of measuring time or recording processes, as well as explaining to the performers the work being studied , goals and objectives of observation;

2. conducting surveillance: fixing the sequence of elements of the work performed, identifying the compliance of the actual operating modes of the equipment with the recommended technologies, determining the duration of breaks and their reasons, filling out observation documentation;

3. processing of observation results: decoding and checking the correctness of recording, when filming - developing materials, calculating the duration of each element of the work performed and the duration of each of them, determining the duration of breaks and their reasons, filling out observation documentation;

4. The final stage: analysis of materials, identification of opportunities for streamlining processes, development of measures to eliminate operational failures, proposals for improving workplaces.

Processing the obtained data is a rather labor-intensive process, especially when observations are carried out using direct measurements. It is aggravated by the need to assess the quality of observations. It follows from this that the complexity of processing is determined by the type of observations, the accuracy of time measurements and the form of data recording.

Based on the form of recording the observation results, they distinguish between digital, index, graphic, combined methods and filming.

At digitally The current time of work is recorded in numbers. If high accuracy of observation results is required, this method is preferable.

Index method involves recording data using pre-known conditional abbreviations (indices). It is used for group or team photography. However, it is necessary that the objects of observation be homogeneous (workers of the same profession performing the same type of work).

In cases where digital and index are inconvenient, use graphic method. Its essence is that the amount of time spent is recorded in the form of straight horizontal lines, the length of which on a certain scale corresponds to the amount of time spent on a particular action. The graphical method gives a visual representation of the duration and alternation of individual types of work, however, if the number of workers exceeds 6, then the quality of recording actions decreases sharply.

Combined recording is a combination of digital and graphic recording, in which segments of horizontal lines are drawn on an observation sheet, and a digital designation is placed above them.

However, a detailed study of work practices using these methods is difficult and sometimes impossible, because the observer does not have time in the short periods of time during which some actions take place to monitor the readings of the instruments, while simultaneously recording their readings on a form.

In this case it helps filming, because it allows you to accurately record the work process, and during playback, view some details in slow motion. This type of recording is used when choosing the most rational methods of observation. However, filming is more labor-intensive and expensive compared to visual observations. A large amount of time is spent preparing equipment, processing film, and transcribing the footage. High material costs are due to the high cost of filming and auxiliary equipment, film, equipment for viewing and decoding footage. Therefore, it is advisable to use filming for the repeated use of materials generalized and developed on its basis.

Modern means of studying labor processes include video magnetic recording. Its advantages are:

1.High level remote control

2. the presence of a synchronous sound signal (for explanations of time signals)

3. no need to process the film, use appropriate equipment and special premises

4. Possibility of playback immediately after recording ends

5. Possibility of synchronous demonstration on several screens at once

6. ability to play multiple takes on one screen

7. the possibility of computer processing of recordings, which facilitates, in particular, the editing process.

Timing

Timing is the study and measurement of individual, cyclically repeating elements of an operation, individual elements of an operation.

It is carried out, as a rule, in work that is characterized by frequent repetition and a constant degree of influence of factors on the time of their implementation. The main task of timing is to identify factors influencing the duration of each element of the operation under study in order to design its rational structure as a whole and the normal duration of its individual elements.

With the help of timing, only the actions that are part of the operational work are determined, because Of all types of productive work, only this is repeated cyclically.

Although the duration of operations studied during timing is not theoretically limited by limiting values, it is not advisable to resort to it to observe operations of long duration. Such data is accumulated through a photograph of the working day, which we will consider below. It is most appropriate to use this method to study operations that are short in duration and cannot be measured in the process of photographing a working day.

Timing is divided into individual and group (team) depending on the number of workers observed.

By using individual timing determine the time spent by individual performers, which allows you to study the work with the maximum degree of detail.

At group timing one observer studies the work of a group of workers performing one production operation. It is used to study the composition of a group and the rational distribution of work among workers in it. To achieve greater accuracy, two timekeepers are assigned to observe independently of each other, and at the end of the work, the data obtained by each of the observers is verified.

Timing observations of all varieties are carried out only by the method of direct time measurements.

Timing studies are distinguished by the completeness of coverage of elements of operational work, as well as by the method of recording time. Based on these characteristics, continuous and selective timing are distinguished.

With continuous timing, continuous study and measurements of the duration of all elements of the operation are carried out in their technological sequence.

In selective timing, the duration of not all operational work is studied and measured, but only its individual elements.

Since unevenness in work is encountered during timing, it is necessary to determine at what number of cycles the deviations will cancel each other out. Obviously, it is impossible to limit ourselves to a small number of observations, because the results may be random, however, starting from a certain number, increasing the degree of reliability little increases, while simultaneously increasing the complexity of observation in direct proportion.

There are several commonly used methods for determining the number of observations:

1. The number of measurements is determined by calculation, using mathematical methods, according to statistical tables. For example, according to the methodology of the Leningrad Financial and Economic Institute, it is proposed to determine the required number of measurements during timing using the formula:

The value of E is found using the formula:

where Z is the cost per hour to pay the worker, who is the object of timing; C 1 – costs for obtaining one element of the time series.

2. The number of measurements during timing is set depending on the required accuracy of standards as a percentage of the standard stability coefficient of the time series (Table 1).

3. The number of observations is determined depending on the type of production and duration of operations (Table 2).

4. The number of necessary measurements is determined depending on the duration of the operation being studied, the nature of the work and the participation of the performer in it (Table 3).

5. The number of necessary observations for each selected element depends on the type of production, the duration of work performed manually and the total duration (Table 4).

Table 1 . Required number of observations when timing.

Table 2. Approximate number of observations (at least)

Table 3 . Number of required observations during timing

Table 4. Required number of observations during timing and permissible stability coefficients of the timing series 1.

There are also no uniform recommendations for determining the required number of observations in the practice of foreign enterprises. Thus, at the enterprises of the General Electric company (USA), it is considered necessary to make the number of observations dependent on the duration of the operation.

Table 5. Dependence of the number of observations on the duration of operations

Another company, Westinghouse Electric Corporation, takes into account not only the duration of elements and operations, but also their recurrence throughout the year.

Table 6. The influence of the duration of operations and their repetition throughout the year on the number of measurements

Preparation for it significantly affects the quality of timing. When determining the content, volume and timing of preparatory work, the choice of research objects, they proceed from the timing goals. Its main goal is to obtain scientifically based materials that will allow rationalization of production, increasing the efficiency and content of work. Subordinate goals include:

1. accumulation of data on the duration of individual elements of the operation in order to use them for the subsequent development of time standards, calculation of reasonable standards in the absence of standards or their insufficient completeness;

2. adjustment of existing and establishment of new standards in large-scale and mass production, assessment of the time spent on performing an operation from the point of view of their rationality and expediency;

3. studying the achievements of production innovators, selecting the best work methods and designing rational labor processes based on them;

4. identifying irrational, unnecessary techniques to determine the optimal composition and sequence of elements of the operation;

5. assessment of organizational and technical conditions and their impact on the time spent when performing individual elements of the operation.

When choosing objects, it should be taken into account that they must have a certain commonality and comparability.

In all cases, except when it is used to identify the causes of non-compliance with standards, the workplace should be carefully prepared in terms of equipment, order, lighting and occupational safety.

Having chosen the object of observation, a detailed description of the operation being studied is drawn up. A special place in the description is occupied by the organization and maintenance of the workplace. You should carefully understand the layout of the workplace, the location of the tools, and the provision of the workplace with everything necessary for work.

The operation being studied is divided into its component elements. The degree of division of the operation depends on the type of production, the purpose of observation, the design of the measuring device, the method of measurement, and the qualifications of the observer.

In order to correctly determine the duration of each element of the operation for each measurement, they are clearly delimited by fixation points.

Fixation points are distinct external signs that determine the starting and ending moments of each of the measured elements of the operation.

If continuous observation is carried out, the final fixing point of the previous element is at the same time the starting point for the subsequent one.

Let's consider measuring time spent and analyzing its results using the example of timing a cashier's operational time.

Chronocard.

Observation sheet.

No.	Operation element	Fixing points (end points)	T – current time; P – element duration	Observation no.										Sum of duration and number of measurements	Time series stability coefficient		Average element duration, min
				1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10		Time series stability coefficient
				Observation time, min.											Actual	Normative
1	Issue a receipt order	Separating the hand from the seal	T	0,07	1,40	3,16	5,00	7,00	8,10	9,28	11,00	12,37	14,17	0,84	2,6	3	0,084
1	Issue a receipt order	Separating the hand from the seal	P	0,07	0,10	0,06	0,10	0,05	0,07	0,08	0,13	0,09	0,09	10	2,6	3	0,084
2	Count the money	Separation of hand from money	T	0,27	2,00	3,46	5,40	7,10	8,30	9,40	11,23	13,07	14,33	2,21	2,5	3	0,221
2	Count the money	Separation of hand from money	P	0,20	0,20	0,30	0,40	0,10	0,20	0,12	0,23	0,30	0,16	10	2,5	3	0,221
3	Punch a check	End of movement of cash register tape	T	0,37	2,10	3,56	5,47	7,16	8,35	9,47	11,30	13,13	14,40	0,75	2	3	0,075
3	Punch a check	End of movement of cash register tape	P	0,10	0,10	0,10	0,07	0,06	0,05	0,07	0,07	0,06	0,07	10	2	3	0,075
4	Attach the check to the receipt	Separating the hand from the check	T	0,40	2,16	4,00	5,50	7,20	8,37	9,50	11,34	13,16	14,42	0,34	3	3	0,034
4	Attach the check to the receipt	Separating the hand from the check	P	0,03	0,06	0,04	0,03	0,04	0,02	0,03	0,04	0,03	0,02	10	3	3	0,034
5	Count the change	Separation of hand from money	T	1,00	2,46	4,20	6,30	7,40	8,57	10,20	11,59	13,39	15,04	2,5	2	3	0,25
5	Count the change	Separation of hand from money	P	0,20	0,30	0,20	0,40	0,20	0,20	0,30	0,25	0,23	0,22	10	2	3	0,25
6	Give change and receipt	Separating the hand from the receipt and change	T	1,10	2,50	4,27	6,35	7,43	9,00	10,24	12,05	13,43	15,07	0,49	3	3	0,049
6	Give change and receipt	Separating the hand from the receipt and change	P	0,10	0,04	0,07	0,05	0,03	0,03	0,04	0,06	0,04	0,03	10	3	3	0,049
7	Register the receipt order in your notebook	Separating a pen from a notebook	T	1,30	3,10	4,50	6,55	8,03	9,20	10,47	12,28	14,08	15,19	1,83	1,92	3	0,183
7	Register the receipt order in your notebook	Separating a pen from a notebook	P	0,20	0,20	0,23	0,20	0,20	0,20	0,23	0,23	0,25	0,12	10	1,92	3	0,183
Total	0,6971

The stability coefficient, which characterizes the degree of fluctuations in the chronosequence, is calculated using the formula:

where t max is the maximum duration of an operation element, and t min is the minimum.

We determine the standard coefficients from the table:

Table 7. Standard values of chronosequence stability coefficients

In our case, all coefficients do not exceed the standard, therefore, the observation was carried out qualitatively

The average duration of each element of the operation is determined as the arithmetic mean of all valid measurements of the time series.

Methods for processing chronosequences cannot be uniform and constant for all industries and all cases. Each industry may adopt the most appropriate method depending on the nature and conditions of the work.

Timing studies make it possible to study, first of all, operational time, and therefore, when using timing to establish standards, it is necessary to use normative materials and materials from photographs of the working day.

In addition, timing has a number of disadvantages:

1. The standard of labor in the traditional timing procedure is based on the average actual expenditure of working time by those performers whose jobs were the objects of observation. Therefore, the reliability of the obtained materials also depends on the correct choice of the latter.

2. The method of work is not fully recorded in the course of research, although it is this method that determines the time and quality of work.

3. By recording the actual time for performing techniques, the researcher cannot claim that this level is fully justified, because the standardizer determines the achieved level of productivity, which does not at all mean the productivity possible under given conditions at each workplace with an average (normative) level of performers’ abilities.

4. Because the time standard is established only according to one criterion - the total duration of the elements of the labor process, then the data obtained through timing will always be more or less subjective.

5. Timing data on the time spent on individual operations usually contain time losses associated with shortcomings in the organization of work. To identify them, you need to design a rational labor process.

6. Regulatory research can be carried out only after production has begun and workers have fully mastered the operations.

7. It is almost impossible to avoid errors when measuring individual actions, especially in short-term operations. It is also difficult to compare timing data for the same operations that were obtained at different enterprises, in different production conditions and at different times. To some extent, these disadvantages can be reduced by using more accurate methods of studying labor processes.

Photo of working hours.

Working time photo- this is a type of observation with the help of which the time spent by one worker or group associated with the implementation of a particular process throughout the entire working day (shift) or part of it is studied and analyzed, regardless of what this time was spent on. The FRF does not disclose the technology and methods for carrying out the process, but only records its progress.

The purpose of the FRF is to identify reserves for increasing productivity and improving the use of equipment. This is achieved by identifying the feasibility, sequence of certain time expenditures, their measurement, establishing the degree of possible compaction of the workday of performers, eliminating losses of working time and equipment downtime.

The purpose of photography of working time is to identify shortcomings in the organization of labor and production that cause losses or irrational use of working time, to design a more rational distribution of work shift time by categories of time spent, to determine the actual output of products, the rate of its production and the uniformity of work during the shift.

With skillful, widespread and systematic application of the FRF, the head of the enterprise will always have a clear understanding of the work and downtime of workers and equipment, and the causes of lost working time.

By the number of objects of observation, forms of labor organization, etc. FRF is divided into individual, group, brigade, mass, route, multi-machine, target, photograph of the production process and photograph of equipment use(see diagram 2). A distinction is also made between duplicated and picket photography of the working day.

Dubbed Two workers take photos of the working day at the same time. This method is used when visibility of the observed object is limited. Observers work independently of each other and, when finished, compare the results to get the overall picture.

Picket photography of the working day is carried out by several observers who are located at certain points and record the moment of passage of the observed object through this point. This method is most often used when studying the operation of transport, because According to safety rules, the observer cannot travel with the vehicle all the time. During an individual PDF, the observer studies the working time expenditure of one performer working at one workplace or the time of use of equipment during a work shift or part thereof.

Let's consider an example: PDF of a sales manager of a commercial company.

Date of observation: 03/20/1999

Beginning of observation: 8 hours 30 minutes.

End of observation: 17:30

Job: customer service, work with suppliers, sales analysis

Working conditions: normal

Sales Manager: Novgorodtsev A.A.

Age: 28 years old.

Work experience: 4 years

Experience in this job: 2 years.

Attitude to work: conscientious

Observer Kuznetsova S.A.

No.	Name of working time costs	Current time in hours and minutes	Duration (min)	Index
1.	Arrival at the workplace	8.35	5	NTD
2.	Preparation of the workplace	8.40	5	PZ
3.	Customer Service	9.00	20	OP
4.	Receiving and viewing email	9.30	30	OP
5.	Receiving a list of paid invoices from the accounting department and familiarizing yourself with it	9.45	15	PZ
6.	Checking the availability of paid goods in the warehouse	10.05	20	OP
7.	Customer Service	10.15	10	OP
8.	Personal care	10.20	5	OLN
9.	Preparation of orders to suppliers	10.45	25	OP
10.	Customer service	12.00	75	OP
11.	Discussing orders with suppliers by phone	12.05	5	OP
12.	Customer service	13.30	85	OP
13.	Dinner	14.30	60	OLN
14.	Customer service	16.30	120	OP
15.	Personal care	16.35	5	OLN
16.	Rest	16.40	5	OLN
17.	Conversation with a co-worker on a personal topic	16.57	17	NTD
18.	Customer service	17.15	18	OP
19.	Making a plan for the next day	17.25	10	OP
20.	Turning off the computer, putting things in order in the workplace	17.28	3	PZ
21.	Leaving work	17.30	2	PZ
Total			540

PZ=5+15+3+2=25

OP=20+30+20+10+25+75+5+85+120+18+10=418

OLN=5+60+5+5=75

First of all, let's analyze how effectively working time is used. To do this, we use the formula for the actual coefficient of working time utilization:

Let's consider the load factor of this employee, which we determine using the formula:

The actual load factor is 82%.

2) losses depending on the worker:

Consequently, by improving discipline, labor productivity will increase by 4%.

by eliminating unproductive work and all lost working time:

Group FRF.

Group called work time photography, in which one observer simultaneously studies the work of several performers.

Preparation for observation differs from individual photography in only a few ways:

1. Conventional abbreviations for time spent are established in advance and written down on the front side of the photo card.

2. Pre-select time intervals that are noted on the observation sheet.

3. Establish a sequence for observing workplaces.

Features of group photography:

1. The observer determines in advance the types of costs and losses being studied, because it cannot continuously record all time spent at each location.

2. Observation time is divided into intervals. The accuracy of the results will directly depend on the size of the intervals.

3. To make it easier to record on the observation sheet, costs are indicated by easy-to-remember numbers or letters.

In terms of completeness, detail and accuracy, group photography is significantly inferior to individual photography, however, the advantages of group photography include the ability to simultaneously cover large groups of workers with one observer, as well as ease of recording and processing, which leads to a reduction in labor intensity.

Momentary observations.

Since the method of direct measurements requires large expenses for their implementation, in the case when it is intended to cover a large number of objects, so-called momentary observations are advisable.

A characteristic feature of the momentary observation method is that the observer is not continuously at the workplace, but visits them periodically at random intervals. Using momentary observations, you can analyze the structure of working time at almost any number of objects.

Observations are carried out by sequentially walking around selected workplaces and marking the type of activity at fixation points with conventional signs on the observation sheet. If there are special moment counters, the observation sheet is not used.

Based on the results of momentary observations, you can:

1. Determine the degree of use of working time by a large number of performers and the degree of use of a large amount of equipment over time.

2. Study the structure and establish the specific weight and absolute values of individual elements of the contractor’s working time costs.

3. Establish the causes and determine the proportion and absolute values of downtime of workers and equipment and develop measures to eliminate them.

4. Analyze the state of labor organization and develop measures to improve them.

5. Obtain the necessary initial data for developing standards for preparatory and final time, time for servicing the workplace, as well as service standards.

To ensure the reliability of the results obtained, which should reflect the actual use of working time, the following conditions must be met:

observations of certain working time expenditures must be random and equally possible;

the number of observations must be large enough to reliably characterize the observed phenomenon as a whole.

The volume of observations is determined using statistical rules for sample surveys. It is found using the formula:

where M is the sample size or the number of momentary observations, K is the approximate share of working time spent on performing the work under study or the approximate share of equipment operating time in fractions of a second (its value is taken from the results of previously conducted observations or taken approximately on the basis of reporting data), (1-K) – the proportion of breaks or downtime, i.e. the probability of catching a worker or machine inactive, P – the predetermined accuracy of the observation results, i.e. permissible value of the relative error of observation results (in the practice of studying working time, it is taken within the range of 0.03 - 0.1), a - coefficient associated with the confidence probability of the error P not exceeding the established limits.

and unstable production:

There are also ready-made tables that allow you to quickly determine the required number of observations.

The duration of one round can be determined by the timing method or determined by the formula:

The number of moments M 1 recorded per shift is determined by the formula:

where K is a coefficient that takes into account the discrepancy in the time of rounds (taken within the range of 0.5-0.7), T round is the duration of one round.

To obtain objective and accurate results, you must adhere to the following rules:

1. Each round must be carried out along the intended route, at a uniform pace, without speeding up or slowing down the walk, and begin strictly at the appointed time.

2. Only being at the fixing point for these workers, the observer can record what is happening at the workplace. Even if an observer, being at one point, sees that a worker is idle at another point, he does not have the right to make a mark until he arrives at that point.

3. If a worker, at the moment the observer approaches the object of observation, has completed one state of activity and begins another, then the first state should always be recorded in the observation card.

The results of momentary observations serve as the basis for the development of measures to eliminate losses of working time. To implement them, a plan is drawn up, which indicates the timing of its implementation and those responsible for carrying out the activities. The results of the analysis and the measures developed on its basis are discussed at production meetings.

Thus, the method of momentary observations provides very reliable material with significantly less labor intensity.

Self photography.

The method of studying labor processes, in which the performers themselves record the duration and causes of lost working time on special forms, is called self-photography.

Self-photography may be due to various circumstances.

First of all, the successful and comprehensive implementation of NOT requires the involvement of all workers, because involving them in the study of the labor process provides an inexhaustible source of improving the organization of labor and production.

Conclusions made on the basis of a photograph of a working day may turn out to be characteristic only of the observed object and the corresponding time interval. In order to obtain generalized conclusions about the state of the organization of labor and production, and an objective idea of the use of working time, it is necessary to cover at least half of the working area, department, or workshop with photographs of the working day. A study of working time will only be effective if it is carried out systematically and covers a large group of workers and if the workers themselves take an active part in it. It is the workers who can tell what exactly is causing the loss of time, what reserves for increasing labor productivity exist in a given workplace.

Although self-photography characterizes the loss of working time for organizational and technical reasons no less objectively than the FW, it does not give an idea of the loss of working time due to the fault of the performer himself. Therefore, along with self-photography, it is necessary to carry out FRF.

Self-photography is divided into individual, group and team.

The most common is individual self-photography, which is used to study the loss of working time for one performer. Using group self-photography, we study the loss of working time among performers servicing one unit. Less common is team self-photography. Unlike individual and group self-photography, in a brigade the loss of working time is recorded not by all its members, but by one person. The team self-photo card indicates not only the loss of working time, its cause and duration, but also how many people from the team were idle at the same time.

Depending on the object of study, a distinction is made between self-photography of the working time of workers and the working time of employees.

Employees consistently take into account all working time costs throughout the working day, especially those that are not related to their direct duties. This is due to the fact that the labor process of employees has hidden phases that can only be revealed by participating in the study of the performer himself.

When preparing for self-photography, those areas where losses and unproductive costs are the highest are most often chosen as the object of observation. The following procedure for self-photography is recommended. By order of the enterprise (or its division), the dates for self-photography are approved and those responsible for its preparation are designated. Then they make a list of performers who will engage in self-photography, distribute them into groups of 30-40 people, and instructors from among specialists are assigned to each of them.

A few days before the appointed date, instructors are given lists of participants in self-photography and observation sheet forms. On the eve of self-photography, instructors hand out forms and explain in detail the purpose, objectives and observation technique.

On the day of self-photography, instructors periodically help members of their group to correctly and promptly record data on breaks in work, and after the end of observation, formulate and formalize proposals for improving the organization of work. Then the instructors collect the completed cards and hand them over to the enterprise administration.

Based on the proposals of the self-photography participants, a draft action plan is drawn up to improve the organization of work and maintenance of workplaces.

Photochronometry.

Through timekeeping, working time is studied when, for organizational and technical reasons or due to special rules of production work, it is not possible to carry out timekeeping.

Photo timing is a combined method of studying working time, based on the combination of timing and photography of working time. Its essence is that a photograph of working time in certain periods of time is supplemented by timing.

A significant advantage over the separate conduct of timing and FRF is that over the same period of time it is possible to obtain data on the advisability of using shift time, and on the structure of operational time and the rationality of techniques when performing the main work.

This method is especially important when studying the time of performers employed during a shift in several types of work characterized by cyclical repetition, when it is impossible to determine in advance the time and sequence of their performance.

Depending on the purposes of observation, the number of objects observed, the number of observers and the nature of the production process, individual, group, duplicate and complex photographic timing is distinguished.

Individual phototiming, which studies the work of one performer, is used when increased accuracy of time measurements and a greater degree of detail in the work process are required.

The main purpose of group photographic timing is to study the consistency of the work of team members, the degree of their workload, the organization of work, to identify the causes and duration of lost working time, and to investigate other issues that do not require accurate time measurements.

Duplicate observation means that the work process is observed simultaneously by two timekeepers. In this case, both observers can work independently, or one of them records the time, and the other describes work techniques.

Comprehensive observations make it possible to identify the relationship between individual production processes, study the production rhythm of work, determine the degree of rational use of machines, and develop specific measures to improve work and increase labor productivity. With this type of observation, a group of observers studies the work of a team, workshop, department or enterprise as a whole, making it possible to cover the entire set of production processes or a significant part of them.

Conclusion.

All applied methods for studying working time costs are interconnected and complement each other. Depending on the purpose of the study, preference is given to one type or another.

The use of photography of working time throughout the entire shift during manual work will help improve the organization of work and increase its productivity through the effective use of all time.

When studying machine-manual work, photographs of working hours and photographic timing give good results.

The most effective in machine and automated production is the use of oscillography, photography and filming.

At any enterprise, regardless of its form of ownership, the efficiency of the production process is of great importance, i.e. its implementation with the least expenditure of working time and equipment. The main condition for rationalizing the production process is a systematic study of working time costs and the use of observation materials. Based on them, conclusions are drawn about the presence of bottlenecks in the enterprise, the causes and extent of lost working time, and measures are outlined to improve labor and production.

Improving the labor process involves the rational combination of all elements of labor over time, as well as the establishment of relationships among production participants.

Bibliography.

1. Gandina N.M. Economics and labor regulation: Textbook. I.: Publishing house IGEA, 1994.

2. Genkin B.M., Petrochenko P.F., Bukhalkov M.I. etc. Under. Ed. B.M. Genkina. Labor rationing. – M.: Economics, 1985.

3. Nazarov A.Sh. Labor rationing. – T.: Ukituvchi, 1987.

4. Nikitin A.V. Collection of tasks on economics, organization and regulation of labor in industry. – M.: Economics, 1990.

5. Razumov I.M., Smirnov S.V., Glagoleva L.A. Scientific organization of labor in mechanical engineering. – M.: Higher School, 1978.

6. Kholodnaya G.N. Labor rationing in industry. – M.: Economics, 1978.

Kholodnaya G.N. Labor rationing in industry. – M.: Economics. 1978, p. 63.

Nazarov A.Sh.. Labor rationing. – T.:Uikituvchi, 1987, p. 110

Nazarov A.Sh. Labor rationing. – T.: Ukituvchi, 1987, p. 176.

There, p. 177.

Razumov I.M., Smirnov S.V., Glagoleva L.A. Scientific organization of labor in mechanical engineering. – M.: Higher School, 1978., p. 119.

Nazarov A.Sh. Labor rationing. – T.: Ukituvchi, 1987, p. 178.

1 Nazarov A.Sh. Labor rationing. – T.: Ukituvchi, 1987, p. 179.

Methods for studying working time costs are ways of obtaining information about the use of working time, the rationality of performing a production operation in order to increase labor productivity. These methods allow you to obtain the information necessary to solve problems in designing the organization of labor and its regulation.

The choice of a specific method for studying the cost of working time depends on the content of the production process (mechanical or physical-chemical), the degree of mechanization of the worker’s labor, the type of production, the form of labor organization in the workplace (individual, team, multi-machine), the frequency of repetition and the duration of the production process cycle ( cyclical, periodic and continuous processes). The main methods for studying the cost of working time are timing, photography of the working day and photographic timing. Their most common varieties are given in table. 15.1.

Timing. Timing - This is the study of an operation by observing and measuring the labor time required to complete individual elements that are repeated in the manufacture of each unit of output. It is carried out with the aim of determining time standards for individual operations, developing time standards, identifying and studying new techniques and methods of work, and the reasons for non-compliance with established standards. According to the objects of observation, timing is divided into individual, team and multi-machine operator timing.

Carrying out timing includes the following stages: preparation for timing observations, timing itself, processing and analysis of observation data and development of measures to eliminate identified losses. When preparing for time observations, you must:

1) become familiar with the organizational and technical conditions of production, paying special attention to the facts that determine the level of worker productivity when performing this operation;
2) divide the operation into elements and install fixing points- moments of the beginning or end of elements of the operation, clearly expressed by sound or visual perception;
3) explain to the worker the goals and objectives of the timekeeping being carried out.

Timing itself is the observation and measurement of the duration of the execution of individual elements of the operation. Depending on the purposes, timing can be carried out using the method of individual readings or using the current time. The results of observations are recorded on a special form ( chronocard). At timing using the method of individual readings in the process of observation, a number of values of the indicator of the duration of execution of a given element of the operation are obtained, i.e. timeline. For getting

Varieties of timekeeping and photographs of the working day

Timing				Working day photo
Method observations	An object observations	Form records results	Way observations	Method observations	An object observations	Form records results	Way observations
Solid	Individual	Digital	Visual	Solid (continuous)	Individual	Digital	Visual
Solid	Individual	Graphic	Visual	Solid (continuous)	Individual	Digital	Visual
Selective	Brigade	Photography and filming		Periodic	Group	Index	Using instruments
		Oscillographic recording, combined	Using instruments			Graphic
Cyclic	Multi-station operator	Oscillographic recording, combined		Selective instant	Brigade Route	Combined	photo

time series at timing according to current time It is necessary to subtract the adjacent previous time from each subsequent current time.

Processing and analysis of time observations involves the following work:

1) exclusion from the chronosequences of erroneous measurements that were noted by observations;
2) checking the quality of time series by calculating the stability coefficient and the required number of observations;
3) calculation of the average duration of execution of each element of the operation, subject to the stability of the time series.

The quality and accuracy of timekeeping depend on the stability coefficients of the time series and on the number of necessary observations, the maximum permissible values of which, according to the Research Institute of Labor, are given respectively in Table. 15.2 and 15.3.

Actual stability factor(^ st.f) of the chronosequence is calculated by the formula

where G max and G t1p are, respectively, the maximum and minimum duration of execution of a given element of the operation.

The chronosequence is considered stable provided that L "st f K st is the standard stability coefficient.

Table 15.2

Maximum permissible values of the chronosequence stability coefficient

Duration of the studied element of the operation, s	Stability factor
Duration of the studied element of the operation, s	during machine operation	when working by machine	when working manually
Mass production:



Large-scale production:



Mass production:


Small-scale production

Table 15.3

Number of required observations during timing

Nature of work depending	Duration elements operations	Number of quality operations with operation duration, min
from the worker's participation in it	Duration elements operations		over 10
Active monitoring of machine operation,
machine or working on a stream with a set rhythm
Machine-hand work

Handmade

According to the methodology of the Scientific Research Institute of Labor, the permissible accuracy of timing observations depends on the type of production and is set within the following limits: mass production - 3-5%; large-scale - 5-8%; serial - 8-10%; small-scale and single - 10-20%. The accuracy of timing depends on the number of observations. The required number of observations of the elements of the operation, depending on its duration and the nature of the work, is determined according to the methodology of the Scientific Research Institute of Labor (see Table 15.3).

The average (normative) duration of each element of the operation (x), derived from a stable time series, is determined by the formula

where is the sum of all execution duration values

elements for a given stable chronosequence; P - the number of high-quality observations accepted after excluding erroneous measurements from the time series.

The analysis of timing data ends with the development of proposals for changing the content and structure of the operation being performed and the generalization of timing research materials to establish time standards or estimated durations for performing repetitive elements of work (time standards).

Photo of a working day. Workday photography examines and records all working time costs that occur in the workplace during a shift or part of a shift. There are two types of photographing a working day: performed by the performer of the work himself (self-photographing) or by a standard adjuster, foreman or technologist. Photographing the working day is equally applicable to both workers and employees, managers and specialists and has several varieties: individual, team, group, route, photographing the working day of multi-machine operators.

Individual photography of the working day is used in cases where it is necessary to study the working time costs of one specific performer of work. Photographing the working day of a multi-machine operator has the same purpose, which is also used to obtain data that allows one to calculate the rate of maintenance of equipment by one worker with rational loading and uninterrupted operation of the machines served by him.

Route photography serves to study the working time costs of a group of performers united by the work being performed, but located in different production areas, by walking around them or to study the time costs of workers and mechanisms in motion.

Most widely used in enterprises group And team photography of the working day. It allows you to study the use of working time by performers united in production teams or working in one section of the production area.

Photographing a working day consists of four parts: preparation for observation, direct observation, processing and analysis of observation data, development of measures to eliminate loss of working time. Preparation for observation consists of a detailed description of the work itself, the equipment used, materials, organization of the workplace, as well as collecting information about the worker as the performer of the work (experience, qualifications, average percentage of standards, etc.).

Direct observations consist of recording what is happening at a workplace or group of workplaces and changing the corresponding time spent on work. In the process of photographing a working day, the results of observations are entered into a special photo card in the form of text, an index or a line on a graph. When taking self-photos, the observation process consists in the fact that the performer of the work himself writes down on a special card the amount of lost working time, indicating the reasons causing them.

When processing and analyzing observation data, the duration of each type of time expenditure is determined by subtracting the previous one from the current time value for this type of expenditure. The sum of all time costs must be equal to the observation duration. After determining the duration of each type of time expenditure, they are given a letter designation. Then a summary of the time spent of the same name is compiled, and based on the summary - actual working time balance(working day, shift) (Table 15.4).

Table 15.4

Actual working time balance

Time spent	Designation	Duration
Time spent	Designation
Preparatory and final work
Operational work
Including:
main job
auxiliary work
Workplace maintenance
Rest and personal needs
Downtime for organizational and technical reasons
Loss of working time due to violations of labor discipline
Balance sheet results

For calculation standard working time balance time standards are used for preparatory and final operations, workplace maintenance, rest and personal needs approved for this type of work. Then it is determined standard operational time(OP norms) and a standard balance of working time (working day, shift) is drawn up. The actual and standard balances of working time allow us to draw certain conclusions about the actual use of the working day and the possibility of increasing labor productivity by identifying losses (Table 15.5).

The maximum possible increase in labor productivity while eliminating all losses and unnecessary costs of working time (P pt) is calculated by the formula

where G op n is the standard operational time; G op f - actual operational time.

Table 15.5

Actual and standard working time balances

Index	Name of time spent	Facti logical expenses	Norm tive expenses	Expenses, subject reduction,
	Preparatory and final time
	Operating time
	Workplace maintenance
	Breaks for organizational and technical reasons
	Breaks due to violations of labor discipline
	Rest breaks and personal needs
	Shift time

Based on the information received, organizational and technical measures are developed aimed at eliminating the causes of losses and unreasonable expenditure of working time.

To study the use of working time and its losses, photography is widely used by the method of instant observations. Snapshot method- this is a statistical method of obtaining average data on the actual workload of workers and equipment; it is used to study the cost of labor time and the degree of utilization of equipment over the time it is running. With the help of momentary observations, the loss of working time by employees, managers and specialists is also studied.

Instant observations are made during the walk-through process. An observer, following a certain route, records on an observation sheet in the form of a point, line or index what is happening at a given workplace at the time of his visit. When conducting instant observations, their volume is of great importance, i.e. the number of man-moments that need to be recorded. To determine the required volume of observations, formulas derived from mathematical statistics are recommended.

Another method for studying working time costs is photographic timing - a combined study of an operation, when both a photograph of the working day and timing are taken simultaneously in one dimension.