Individual Differences Man: Are these sequences specific to individuals, or are there some commonalities in the experiences that different people have when taking a particular drug? It seems to depend a lot on the drug. We saw

How we differ in perception Men and women perceive the same phenomenon differently. A man sees things and objects in their spatial relationship with each other, as if he were putting together a picture of the world from a mosaic. A woman immediately absorbs the bigger picture.

6. Individual differences. The hypothesis according to which the brain is partly subject to endocrine influence, while apparently correct, still needs to be proven. In this sense, the use of lithium for the treatment of manic-depressive psychoses is of interest.

PRACTICE OBSERVING PICTURES Imagine that your brain is a camera, capable of capturing the scene you are observing from different angles. A good photographer appeals to all his senses to capture what he finds special.

Cracks in Perception Your subconscious mind hears every word you say out loud or to yourself. Consciousness always with difficulty clearly formulates your inner experiences. Thus, the subconscious mind is your true hearing, as opposed to completely deaf

Perception reveals the individual characteristics of people, which are explained by the entire history of the formation of each personality and the nature of its activities. First of all, there are two types of perception: analytical and synthetic.

For people analytical type of perception characterized by attention to particulars, details, individual features of an object or phenomenon. Only then do they move on to identifying common points. For people synthetic type of perception characterized by attention to the whole, that is, the main thing in an object or phenomenon, sometimes to the detriment of the perception of particular features. If people of the first type are more attentive to facts, then people of the second type are more attentive to their meaning.

However, much depends on knowledge about the object and the goal facing the person. The type of perception is less detectable in involuntary perception and in cases where a person has the goal of comparing two objects. Psychological research to identify types of perception, they convincingly showed that some subjects predominantly highlight the “absolute” properties of objects, while others predominantly highlight the relationships between these properties. The first is typical for the analytical type, the second for the synthetic type.

Perception is influenced by the feelings experienced by a person. People who are highly emotional and impressionable are much more likely to see objective factors in the light of their personal experiences, likes and dislikes. Thus, they unwittingly introduce a touch of subjectivity into the description and assessment of objective facts. Such people are classified as a subjective type of perception, in contrast to the objective type, which is characterized by greater accuracy in attitudes and assessments.

Attention

Attention call the direction and concentration of consciousness on certain objects or certain activities while being distracted from everything else.

Attention is necessary both in perception, and in thinking, and in action. For example, you can carefully look at a picture, listen to a lecture, solve a mathematical problem, perform the necessary movements when writing, drawing, sculpting, etc.

A person is constantly exposed to many different stimuli. Human consciousness is not able to simultaneously comprehend all these objects with sufficient clarity. Therefore, on the one hand, from the many surrounding objects, items and phenomena, a person selects those that are of interest to him and correspond to his needs and life plans. On the other hand, every this moment the content of mental activity is associated with a relatively small number of phenomena or actions. Thus, out of a large number of stimuli acting on a person at a given moment, he does not perceive all of them, but only a small number. While perceiving one stimulus with attention, he simultaneously does not perceive at all or perceives unclearly the rest, which are not related to his activity at the moment.

With attention, mental activity becomes more organized. Thus, perception thanks to attention is always characterized by an orderly nature: we perceive only what relates to the task that faces us, we are not distracted by side irritations, thanks to which we perceive objects and phenomena with greater clarity. In auditory perception, thanks to attention, we notice the slightest sounds, and precisely those that need to be heard, while distracting ourselves from extraneous sounds. When a doctor listens carefully to a patient, he hears a lot of sounds and accurately distinguishes them, separating the sounds of the right ventricle of the heart from the sounds emanating from the valves of the left, etc.

Attention also plays an organizing role in thinking processes. When thinking is accompanied by concentrated attention, it proceeds more orderly: thoughts proceed in a certain sequence, each thought naturally follows from another thought, they are linked to each other according to essential features, thinking acquires a harmonious character. When attention weakens, thinking becomes disorganized: the flow of thought processes is characterized by a lack of harmony, frequent distractions of thoughts are observed, random connections are established based on unimportant signs, etc. In the absence of attention, for example, in a state of drowsiness, the flow of thoughts becomes chaotic, they are connected with each other randomly, replacing each other through purely mechanical associative connections, unplanned, disorderly.

Externally, attention is expressed in movements, with the help of which we adapt to better perform the required actions. At the same time, unnecessary movements that interfere with this activity are inhibited. So, if we need to carefully examine an object, we turn our head in its direction. This adaptive movement facilitates perception. When we listen to something with attention, we also tilt our heads accordingly. Thanks to the presence of such adaptive movements, one can judge a person’s attention by his appearance; we can say that this person thinks carefully, that person listens carefully, the third one looks carefully, the fourth one works carefully, etc.

Thus, attention increases the efficiency of any mental and motor activity. It is expressed primarily in a clearer and more distinct flow of mental processes and in the exact performance of the actions associated with it. With careful perception, the resulting images are more clear and distinct. In the presence of attention, the processes of thinking, analysis, generalization proceed quickly and correctly. In actions accompanied by attention, movements are performed accurately and clearly. This clarity and distinctness is achieved by the fact that in the presence of attention, mental activity proceeds with greater intensity than in its absence.

It can be stated that there is always attention concentration mental activity on certain objects and at the same time abstraction from other objects. We can therefore say that attention has selective character: we select from a large number of objects some on which our mental activity is concentrated. Thanks to this, attention also carries out a certain focus activities.

It is known that if a person does not mobilize his attention, then mistakes are inevitable in his work, and inaccuracies and gaps are inevitable in his perception. Without focusing, we can:

o look and not see,

o listen and not hear,

o eat and not taste.

Attention is of great importance for a person because:

1. Attention organizes the human psyche for all the variety of sensations.

2. Related to attention direction and selectivity of cognitive processes.

3. Attention is determined by:

o accuracy and detail of perception(attention is a kind of amplifier that allows you to distinguish the details of the image);

o strength and selectivity of memory(attention acts as a factor contributing to the preservation necessary information in the short term and random access memory);

o focus and productivity of thinking ( attention acts as a mandatory factor in correctly understanding and solving a problem).

4. In the system of interpersonal relations attention promotes better mutual understanding, adaptation of people to each other, prevention and timely resolution of interpersonal conflicts. An attentive person achieves more in life than an inattentive person.

Main functions attention in sensory, mnemonic and mental processes, as well as in the system of interpersonal relationships are the following:

A) selection of significant (i.e., corresponding to the needs of this activity) influences and ignoring others - insignificant, side, competing;

b) retention of this activity , preservation in the mind of images of a certain content until the completion of the activity, the achievement of the goal;

V) regulation and control over the course of activities.

Attention is inextricably linked with consciousness generally. This connection is revealed in the most famous psychological theories of attention.

Properties of attention.

Considering the properties of attention, we note that basic properties of attention are: concentration, stability, volume, distribution, switchability .

Focus- this is keeping attention on one object or one action while distracting from everything else. Concentration of attention depends on age and work experience (increases slightly over the years), as well as on the state of the nervous system (with a slight neuropsychic tension, it slightly increases, and with high tension, it decreases).

Focused is called attention directed to any one object or type of action. For example, a person can concentrate on writing, listening, reading, doing some work, watching a sporting event, etc.

In all these cases, his attention is focused only on one given type of activity and does not extend to others: when we read intently, we do not notice what is happening around us and often do not even hear the questions addressed to us.

Focused attention is characterized by pronounced external signs. It is expressed in the appropriate posture, facial expressions, inhibition of all unnecessary movements. All these external features are of great adaptive importance, facilitating concentration.

Concentrated attention is characterized by a high degree of intensity, which makes it necessary condition the success of performing certain types of activities that are important for a person: a student needs focused attention at a lesson, an athlete at the start, a surgeon during an operation, etc., since only with focused attention can these types of activities be performed successfully.

Indicator concentration, or concentrations, attention is its noise immunity, determined by the strength of an extraneous stimulus that can divert attention from the subject of activity. The more focused attention, the higher the prerequisite for more accurate and successful performance of activities, and therefore less fatigue.

The opposite of concentration is the property of attention such as absent-mindedness. Psychologists distinguish ordinary absent-mindedness (a state of attention when it does not focus on one object, but involuntarily moves to others) and imaginary, or “professorial” (manifests itself in deep concentration on one thing, when a person does not notice anything else).

Sustainability of attention - this is the duration of concentration on an object or phenomenon or maintaining the required intensity of attention for a long time . Stability of attention is determined by various reasons:

Firstly, the individual physiological characteristics of the body. The properties of the nervous system and the general state of the body at a given time are especially influential.

Secondly, the mental state (excitability, lethargy, etc.);

Thirdly, motivation (the presence or absence of interest in the subject of activity, its significance for the individual);

Fourthly, external circumstances during the implementation of activities.

The stability of attention is explained by the presence of dynamic stereotypes of nervous processes developed during practice, thanks to which this activity can be performed easily and naturally. When such dynamic stereotypes are not developed, nervous processes irradiate excessively, occupy unnecessary areas of the cortex, intercentral connections are difficult to establish, there is no ease of switching from one element of activity to another, etc.

Stability of attention increases when you comply with: a) optimal work pace: if the pace is too slow or too fast, the stability of attention is disrupted; b) optimal amount of work; with an excessive amount of assigned work, attention often becomes unstable; V) variety of work; the monotonous, monotonous nature of work has a detrimental effect on the stability of attention; on the contrary, attention becomes stable when work includes a variety of activities, when the subject being studied is viewed and discussed from different angles.

Thus, sustainability attention is manifested in the time during which a person can be continuously focused on one object. The longer this time, the more stable the attention. But even with stable attention, its focus can change briefly, involuntarily and periodically. This phenomenon is called hesitation attention. The stability of attention on the objects of any activity is the most important condition for high performance in it. Attention will be more stable in the absence of potent extraneous stimuli that distract it: sound, optical, etc. The stability of attention falls when the pace and volume of work deviate from the optimal for a particular person. It will be the most stable in the case when the object of attention is performed not only physical labor, but also work that requires creative thinking. The richer the content of an object and the more intellectual actions a person can perform with it, the more stable his attention is on this object.

Distractibility attention is a property opposite to stability. Unlike switching, which is done intentionally and voluntarily, attention is always distracted involuntarily and more often when exposed to strong extraneous stimuli (noise in the room, pain, strong odors, unexpected change of environment, etc.). Most people naturally like to work in a calm environment, when nothing distracts them from their work, but a person must accustom himself to work in any conditions, even when something disturbs him.

When considering the properties of attention, it is also necessary to dwell on such important characteristics as intensity And hesitation attention that affect the effectiveness of activities .

Attention intensity characterized by a relatively greater expenditure of nervous energy to perform this type of activity , in connection with which the mental processes involved in this activity proceed with greater clarity, clarity and speed.

Attention in the process of performing a particular activity can manifest itself with different strength. In any job, a person has moments of very tense, intense attention and moments of weakened attention. Thus, in a state of great fatigue, a person is not capable of intense attention, cannot concentrate on the activity being performed, since his nervous system is very tired from previous work, which is accompanied by an increase in inhibitory processes in the cortex and the appearance of drowsiness, as a protective inhibition.

The intensity of attention is expressed in great concentration on this type of work and allows you to achieve best quality actions taken. On the contrary, a decrease in the intensity of attention is accompanied by a deterioration in the quality and decrease in the quantity of work.

Attention fluctuations is expressed in a periodic change of objects to which it refers.

Fluctuations of attention should be distinguished from an increase or decrease in the intensity of attention, when at certain periods of time it is either more or less intense. Fluctuations in attention are observed even with the most focused and sustained attention. They are expressed in the fact that, with all its stability and concentration on a given activity, attention at certain moments moves from one object to another in order to return to the first after a certain period of time.

The periodicity of fluctuations in attention can be clearly demonstrated in experiments with dual images (Figure 3.26).

This drawing depicts two figures at the same time: a truncated pyramid, with its top facing the viewer, and a long corridor with an exit at the end. If we look at this drawing with intense attention, we will successively, at certain intervals, see either a truncated pyramid or a long corridor. This change of objects will occur without fail at certain, approximately equal intervals of time. This phenomenon is fluctuation of attention.

At any given moment, many mental processes take place in a person’s consciousness, differing from each other in the degree of their clarity. In addition to clear images of objects to which our attention is drawn, it contains vague, sometimes very unclear ideas or experiences associated with stimuli to which attention is not currently paid. For example, when a student listens attentively to a lecture, he clearly and distinctly perceives the lecturer's speech. In addition, at any given moment, another environment in which the lecture is taking place will also be reflected in the human consciousness: the view of the audience, the faces of the teacher and other students listening and recording the lecture, the glare of the sun on the floor, etc. All these additional perceptions, Of course, they are not as clear as the perception of the lecturer’s words, but they are still present in the mind while listening to the lecture. One can note the presence in consciousness of even less clear ideas associated, for example, with the events preceding the lecture. Even with the most intense attention, this content of consciousness and the relationship of its individual elements will constantly change: the words of the lecturer, on which attention has just been focused, will at some point begin to be perceived vaguely and unclearly, and the perception of the surrounding situation or ideas about the upcoming affairs after the lecture will clearly arise in consciousness.

Fluctuations in attention are explained by fatigue of the nerve centers during activities performed with intense attention. The activity of certain nerve centers cannot continue without interruption at high intensity. During hard work, the corresponding nerve cells are quickly depleted and need to restore the spent substances. Protective inhibition occurs, as a result of which the excitatory process in these cells that have just worked intensively weakens, while excitation in those centers that were previously inhibited increases, and attention is diverted to extraneous stimuli associated with these centers. But since during work there is a focus on maintaining long-term attention on this particular activity and not on other activities, we overcome these distractions as soon as the main centers associated with the work being performed restore their supply of energy.

Attention span characterized by the number of objects or their elements that can be simultaneously perceived with the same degree of clarity and distinctness at one moment.

At any practical activities A person's attention is rarely drawn to any one element. Even when it is directed at a single but complex subject, there are a number of elements in that subject. With a single perception of such an object, one person may see more, and another less, elements.

The more objects or their elements are perceived at one moment, the greater the volume of attention; The fewer such objects a person grasps in one act of perception, the smaller the amount of attention and the less effective the activity performed will be.

In this case, a “moment” is understood as such a short period of time during which a person can perceive the objects presented to him only once, without having time to move his gaze from one object to another. The duration of this period of time is approximately 0.07 seconds.

Using a special device - a tachistoscope - you can present it to the subject for 0.07 seconds. a table with twelve different figures, letters, words, objects, etc. drawn on it. During this short period of time, the subject will have time to clearly see only some of them. The number of objects correctly perceived under these conditions (instantaneous perception) characterizes the amount of attention.

There are two types of attention span - with simultaneous and sequential presentation of stimuli. In the first case, this is the maximum number of objects that can be consciously perceived in an instant of time (usually in 0.1 s) when presented simultaneously, and in the second case, when presented sequentially for 1–2 s.

Nevertheless, it is believed that the numerical characteristic of the average attention span is 5±2 units of information in children and 7±2 in adults.

The scope of attention can be expanded by carefully studying objects and the situation in which they have to be perceived. When an activity takes place in a familiar environment, the scope of attention increases and a person notices more elements than when he has to act in an unclear or poorly understood situation. The attention span of an experienced person who knows the matter will be greater than the attention span of an inexperienced person who does not know the matter.

An increase in the volume of attention can be achieved in the process of its education by comprehending this activity and accumulating knowledge related to it. Training in this type of activity is of great importance, during which the process of perception is improved and a person learns to perceive individual elements of complex objects and situations not in isolation, but by grouping them according to significant connections.

Thus, the greater the volume of attention, the more sensory information the human brain receives per unit of time, which means that it has a richer sensory base for its logical processing.

Distribution of attention is the ability for an individual to simultaneously perform two or more types of activities. This does not mean that these types of activities are literally carried out in parallel. This impression is created due to a person’s ability to quickly switch from one type of activity to another, managing to return “to the interrupted action” before forgetting occurs.

The distribution of attention depends on the psychological and physiological state of a person. When tired (in the process of performing complex activities that require increased concentration), the area of ​​its distribution narrows significantly.

Hence, distributed is called attention directed simultaneously to several objects or activities.

For example, we can talk about distributed attention, when a student listens and simultaneously writes down a lecture, when a teacher during a lecture watches not just one, but all the students in his field of vision and notices whether all of them have time to write down the material. Distribution attention is also shown when the driver is driving a car and at the same time carefully monitoring all the obstacles on his way: the road, the side of the road, other cars, etc. In all these cases, the successful performance of an activity depends on the person’s ability to direct his attention simultaneously to several heterogeneous objects or actions.

With distributed attention, each of the types of activity it covers occurs with a relatively lower intensity of attention than when it is focused on only one object or action. However, in general, distributed attention requires significantly more effort and expenditure of nervous energy from a person than concentrated attention.

Divided attention is a necessary condition for the successful performance of many complex activities, which by their very structure require the simultaneous participation of heterogeneous functions or operations.

Switching attention- this is the ability to quickly switch off from certain types of activities and join new types of activities that correspond to changed conditions. Such a process can be carried out either involuntary , so on arbitrary basis.

Involuntary switching of attention may indicate its instability. However, this is not always a negative quality, since it contributes to temporary rest of the body and analyzer, preservation and restoration of the nervous system and the performance of the body as a whole. At the same time, we can talk about switchability, when there is a deliberate transfer of attention from one object to another or from one its elements to others.

The ability to switch attention depends on the mobility of the nervous system, and, therefore, it is higher in younger people. In a state of neuropsychic stress, this indicator decreases due to increased stability and concentration.

The ability to switch attention largely depends on temperament. A sanguine person, for example, easily and quickly switches attention from one object to another, a phlegmatic person - without difficulty, but slowly, a choleric person switches attention with difficulty, but if he transfers it, then quickly. A melancholic person has a need for relatively frequent switching of attention due to increased fatigue from monotonous mental activity. It is easy to switch attention from a less interesting object to a more interesting one, from a less significant to a more significant one, from a difficult task to an easier one, from the known to the unknown. In the opposite direction, attention switches with difficulty and more slowly, but this also depends on the volitional characteristics of the person, his training in performing this action.

Types of attention.

Depending from the activity of the individual allocate : involuntary, voluntary and post-voluntary (post-voluntary) attention.

Involuntary (unintentional) attention arises without a person’s intention to see or hear anything, without a predetermined goal, without an effort of will.

Involuntary attention is caused by external reasons - various features of objects acting on a person at the moment. The features due to which external objects can attract our attention are as follows.

Stimulus intensity. An object that is stronger than another object simultaneously acting on the body (a stronger sound, a brighter light, a stronger smell, etc.) is more likely to attract attention. However, objects retain this property only until a person gets used to this degree of intensity. Even very strong stimuli, if they have become habitual, cease to attract attention.

Novelty, unusualness of objects. Sometimes even objects that do not stand out for their intensity attract attention, if only they are new to us; for example, some changes in the usual environment, the appearance of a new person in the audience or company, etc.

Abrupt change, and dynamism objects. This is often observed during complex actions that last a long time, for example, when watching a sports competition, perceiving a movie, etc. In these cases, a disruption of the relatively calm flow of stimuli due to a sudden strengthening or weakening of individual stimuli, introducing a pause or changing the rhythm and tempo of movements involuntarily attracts attention.

Knowing the characteristics of stimuli, thanks to which they are able to attract attention, one can easily cause unintentional attention in certain individuals. For example, a loud voice and a clear command will attract students’ attention to the teacher’s demands, and a bright colorful poster will force them to pay attention to its content.

Unintentional attention is characterized by the following main features:

o In unintentional attention, a person does not prepare in advance for a given perception or action.

o Unintentional attention occurs suddenly, immediately following the impact of irritation and in its intensity is determined by the characteristics of the irritations that caused it.

o Unintentional attention is fleeting: it lasts as long as the corresponding stimuli act, and, if the necessary measures are not taken to consolidate it in the form of intentional attention, it stops.

Voluntary (intentional) attention active, purposeful concentration of consciousness, maintaining the level of which is associated with certain volitional efforts necessary to combat stronger influences. The stimulus in this situation is a thought or order pronounced to oneself and causing corresponding excitation in the cerebral cortex. Voluntary attention depends on the state of the nervous system (it decreases when upset, overly excited) and is determined by motivational factors: the strength of the need, the attitude towards the object of cognition and the attitude (an unconscious readiness to perceive objects and phenomena of reality in a certain way). This type of attention is necessary for mastering skills; performance depends on it.

Based on this, voluntary attention is distinguished by the following characteristics:

o Purposefulness. Voluntary attention is determined by the tasks that a person sets for himself in a particular activity. With intentional attention, not all objects attract attention, but only those that are related to the task being performed by the person at the moment; From many objects, he selects those that are needed in a given type of activity.

o Organized. With voluntary attention, a person prepares in advance to be attentive to one or another object, consciously directs his attention to this object, and demonstrates the ability to organize the mental processes necessary for this activity.

o Increased stability. Intentional attention allows you to organize work for a more or less long time; it is associated with planning this work.

These features of voluntary attention make it an important factor in the success of a particular activity.

So, voluntary attention requires significant energy expenditure, and therefore, with a narrow focus on one, especially low-content object, it tires a person faster than involuntary attention. Without voluntary attention, a person cannot act systematically and achieve the goals he sets.

Characteristic post-voluntary attention is already contained in its very name: it comes after the arbitrary one, but is qualitatively different from it. When the first positive results appear in solving a problem, interest arises, and automation of activity occurs. Its implementation no longer requires special volitional efforts and is limited only by fatigue, although the purpose of the work remains the same. This type of attention is of great importance in educational and work activities.

Post-voluntary attention is purposeful in nature, but does not require special volitional efforts. It has the stability of voluntary attention and the energy economy of involuntary attention. Post-voluntary attention is that involuntary attention that is “born” from previously organized voluntary attention. So, sometimes it is difficult to concentrate when reading a book or article, but its content captured and captivated the reader, and he did not notice how voluntary attention turned into post-voluntary attention. This is the most productive type of attention, which is associated with the most effective intellectual and physical activity. If a person has post-voluntary attention, it is difficult for him to switch to another object.

According to the direction distinguish between externally directed and internal attention. Externally directed (perceptual) attention is directed to the surrounding objects and phenomena, and internal – on your own thoughts and experiences.

By origin distinguish: natural and socially conditioned attention. Natural attention - this is the innate ability of a person to selectively respond to certain external or internal stimuli that carry elements of information novelty.

Socially conditioned attention develops during the life of the subject (intravital) as a result of training and upbringing. It is associated with selective conscious response to objects, with volitional regulation of behavior .

According to the regulation mechanism distinguish: direct and indirect attention.

Direct attention is not controlled by anything other than the object to which it is directed and which corresponds to the actual interests and needs of a person.

Indirect attention controlled by special means, such as gestures.

By its focus on the object There are the following types of attention:

o sensory (aimed at perception)

o intellectual (aimed at thinking, memory work),

o motor (directed towards movement).

By intensity dynamics distinguish between static and dynamic attention.

Static is called such attention, the high intensity of which easily arises at the very beginning of the work and is maintained throughout the entire time of its implementation. Such attention does not require special “acceleration” or gradual accumulation; from the very beginning of work it is characterized by a maximum degree of intensity. A student distinguished by static attention is immediately involved in academic work as soon as the lesson begins, and maintains this intensity of attention more or less at the same level throughout the entire work. Static attention is also characterized by an easy switch to new types of work when moving, for example, from one material to another.

dynamic attention has opposite qualities; at the beginning of work it is not intense; a person needs a certain amount of effort to force himself to be attentive to this type of action; he slowly gets involved in work; the first minutes pass in constant distractions, and only gradually and with difficulty does he concentrate on work.

Dynamic attention is also characterized by difficulty switching from one type of work to another. This is explained, on the one hand, by the fact that with dynamic attention, the achieved degree of concentration in relation to a given work is maintained for a long time, even when the time has come to move on to a new type of activity. On the other hand, this difficulty in switching is due to the fact that the transition to a new type of work again requires build-up, acceleration, and gradual entry into this work.

Dynamic attention is usually associated with the inability to plan work and correctly distribute one’s forces: a person does not see the long-term prospects of his work, does not clearly imagine the operations, their volume and sequence that he must perform, and does not know how to correctly distribute his efforts.

So, attention is the most general indicator of the activity of any of the cognitive mental processes and intellectual activity of a person in general. A temporary or long-term decrease in the stability of attention, a weakening of its concentration (ordinary absent-mindedness) and its other properties, first of all, indicate intellectual or physical fatigue of a person or a deterioration in his health.

The reasons for the decrease in various indicators of attention may be the following:

o weak type of nervous system and associated increased fatigue (characteristic of people with a melancholic temperament),

o exhaustion as a result of systematic physical and intellectual overload or systematic lack of sleep,

o various diseases,

o asthenic conditions,

o conflict situations ,

o disordered daily routine,

o distracting (noise) stimuli when doing work,

o lack of friendly attitude of family members to each other,

o addiction to alcoholic drinks and etc.

Impaired attention is also observed with organic lesions of the brain, primarily its frontal lobes.

Memory

Memory– is a reflection of a person’s past experience by remembering, preserving and reproducing it. The importance of memory in human life was best described by the great psychologist S.L. Rubinstein. He wrote: “Without memory we would be creatures of the moment. Our past would be dead to the future. The present, as it flows, would irrevocably disappear into the past. There would be no knowledge based on the past, no skills. There would be no psychic life." Memory connects the subject’s past with his present and future, and is the most important mental process underlying the development, learning, and socialization of the individual, ensuring its unity and integrity.

There are two types of memory: genetic (hereditary) and mechanical (individual, acquired). Genetic memory− this is a memory that is stored in the genotype, transmitted and reproduced by inheritance, retains information that determines the anatomical and physiological structure of the body and innate forms of behavior (instincts). Mechanical memory- this is a mechanical ability to learn, to acquire some kind of experience, it is a reflection of past experience gained from the moment a person was born through memorizing, storing and reproducing at the right time. This memory accumulates, but is not preserved, but disappears with the body itself. The concept of “mechanical memory” means memory that is based on repetition, without understanding the actions performed and the material being memorized.

Many people complain of bad memory. However, the capacity of human memory has no limits. Currently, it is believed that a person remembers all the information received, but retains only part of it in consciousness.

The diagram below summarizes what the concept of “memory” includes (Figure 3.27).

Rice. 3.27. Types and processes of memory

Properties of memory.

The most important properties of memory include: duration, speed (memorization and reproduction), accuracy, readiness, volume(Fig. 3.28). How productive a person’s memory is depends on these characteristics.

Rice. 3.28. Basic properties of memory

Volume– the ability to simultaneously store a certain amount of information. Average short-term memory capacity: 7 + 2 different elements (units) of information.

Speed ​​of memorization- varies from person to person. The speed of memorization can be increased with the help of special memory training.

Accuracy– manifests itself in the adequate reproduction of facts and events that a person has encountered, as well as in the adequate reproduction of the content of information.

Duration– is determined by the time of storing information. Also a very individual quality: some people can remember the faces and names of school friends many years later, some forget them after just a few months. Memory duration is selective.

Ready for playback- the ability to quickly retrieve information from memory. It is thanks to this ability that we can effectively use previously acquired experience.

There are different classifications of types of human memory:

1. on the participation of the will in the process of memorization;

2. according to the mental activity that prevails in the activity;

3. according to the duration of information storage;

By the nature of the participation of the will memory is divided into involuntary and voluntary.

Involuntary memory ensures memorization and reproduction automatically, without any volitional effort.

Arbitrary memory implies cases when the goal is to remember, and volitional efforts are used to remember.

It has been proven that material that is interesting to a person and that is of great importance to him is involuntarily remembered.

By the nature of mental activity, with the help of which a person remembers information, memory is divided into motor, emotional (affective), figurative and verbal-logical.

In turn, figurative memory is divided according to the type of analyzers that are involved in memorizing impressions by a person. Figurative memory can be visual, auditory, olfactory, tactile and gustatory.

Motor memory– memorizing, storing and reproducing simple and complex movements. This memory is actively involved in the development of motor (labor, sports) skills and abilities. All manual movements of a person are associated with this type of memory.
This memory manifests itself in a person first of all and is essential for the normal development of the child.

Emotional memory- memory for emotions and feelings. This type of memory is especially evident in human relationships. As a rule, what causes emotional experiences in a person is remembered by him without much difficulty and for a long time. As already mentioned, pleasant events are remembered better than unpleasant ones. This type memory plays an important role in a person's motivation, and begins to manifest itself from about 6 months.

Figurative memory associated with the memorization and reproduction of sensory images of objects and phenomena, their properties and relationships between them. This memory begins to manifest itself at the age of two years and reaches its highest point by adolescence. Images can be different: a person remembers both images of different objects and a general idea of ​​them with some abstract content. Various analyzers help you remember images. Different people have more active different analyzers.

Visual memory associated with the preservation and reproduction of visual images. People with developed visual memory usually have a well-developed imagination and are able to “see” information even when it no longer affects the senses. It is very important for people of certain professions: artists, engineers, composers.

auditory memory – This is good memorization and accurate reproduction of various sounds: speech, music. Such a memory is especially necessary when learning foreign languages, musicians.

Tactile, olfactory and gustatory memory- memory for the corresponding images.

Eidetic memory– memory characterized by the emergence of vivid and detailed visual images.

Verbal logical memory– memory for words, thoughts and logical relationships. In this case, a person tries to understand the information being assimilated, clarify the terminology, establish all semantic connections, and only after that remember the material. It is easier for people with developed verbal-logical memory to remember verbal, abstract material, concepts, and formulas. Logical memory, when trained, gives very good results and is much more effective than just mechanical memorization. It appears in a child as early as 3-4 years old, when the very foundations of logic begin to develop. Develops as the child learns the basics of science.

By duration of information storage distinguish sensory, short-term, operational and long-term memory.

Sensory memory. This memory retains material that was just received by the senses, without any processing of information. The duration of this memory is from 0.1 to 0.5 s. Often in this case, a person remembers information without conscious effort, even against his will. This memory is based on the inertia of sensations. This memory manifests itself in children even in preschool age, but over the years its importance for a person increases.

Short-term memory. Provides storage of information for a short period of time: on average about 20 s. This type of memory can function with a single or very brief perception. This memory also works without conscious effort to remember, but with the intention of future reproduction. The most essential elements of the perceived image are stored in memory. Short-term memory “turns on” when the so-called actual consciousness of a person operates (i.e., what is realized by a person at the moment).

Information is entered into short-term memory by paying attention to the memorized object. For example, a person who has just looked at his watch may not be able to answer the question of which numerals, Roman or Arabic, are depicted on the dial. He purposefully did not pay attention to it, and thus the information did not enter short-term memory.

The capacity of short-term memory is very individual. There are various methods for measuring it. In this regard, it is necessary to talk about such a feature of short-term memory as substitution property . When an individual's memory capacity becomes full, new information partially replaces what is stored there, and old information often disappears forever. A good example It may be difficult to remember the abundance of names and surnames of people we have just met. A person is able to retain no more names in short-term memory than his memory capacity allows.

By making a conscious effort, you can retain material in short-term memory longer and ensure that it is transferred into working memory. This is the basis memorization through repetition. At the same time, the necessary information is eliminated and what is potentially useful remains. Short-term memory organizes a person’s thinking, since thinking “draws” information and facts from short-term and operative memory.

Operational memory - memory that stores information for a certain, predetermined period. The storage time of information ranges from several seconds to several hours. For example, you are reading a long sentence and you need to remember the beginning of it while you read it to the end; then you can connect the idea at the beginning of the sentence with the one at the end. In this case, you are using RAM. After solving the task, information may disappear from RAM. A good example would be information that a student is trying to remember during an exam: the time frame and task are clearly defined. After passing the exam, there is again an inability to reproduce a significant part of the information on this issue. This type of memory is, as it were, transitional, from short-term to long-term, since it includes elements of both memory.

Long-term memory - memory that can store information for an unlimited time.

This memory does not begin to function immediately after the material has been memorized, but after some time. A person must switch from one process to another: from memorization to reproduction. These two processes are incompatible, and their mechanisms are completely different.

Interestingly, the more often information is reproduced, the more firmly it is fixed in memory. In other words, a person can recall information at any necessary moment through an effort of will. It is important to note that mental ability is not always an indicator of memory quality. For example, phenomenal long-term memory is sometimes found in mentally retarded people.

Modern researchers also identify the following types of memory.

Perception largely depends on personality characteristics. Our knowledge, interests, habitual attitudes, emotional attitude towards what affects us influence the process of perception of objective reality, which means there are individual differences in perception. These differences are great, but certain types of these differences. These include, first of all, the differences between the holistic and the detailed, or synthetic And analytical, perception.

Holistic or synthetic, the type of perception is characterized by the fact that persons prone to it most clearly present the general impression of the object, the general content of perception, the general features of what is perceived. People with this type pay the least attention to details and details; they grasp the meaning of the whole, and not the detailed content. In order to see the details, they have to set themselves a special task, which is sometimes difficult for them to complete. Persons with detailed or analytical, on the contrary, tend to clearly highlight details and details. The object or phenomenon as a whole, the general meaning of what was perceived, fades into the background for them, sometimes even not noticed at all. Their stories are always filled with details and descriptions of particular details, behind which the meaning of the whole is often lost.

The above characteristics of the two types of perception are characteristic of the extreme poles. Most often, they complement each other, since the most productive perception is based on the positive characteristics of both types.

There are other types of perception, for example descriptive And explanatory. Persons related to descriptive type, they limit themselves to the factual side of what they see and hear, and do not try to explain to themselves the essence of the perceived phenomenon. The driving forces of people's actions, events or phenomena remain outside the field of their attention. On the contrary, persons belonging to explanatory type, are not satisfied with what is directly given in perception. They always strive to explain what they saw or heard. This type of behavior is more often combined with a holistic, or synthetic, type of perception.

Also distinguished objective And subjective types of perception. The objective type of perception is characterized by strict compliance with what is happening in reality. Persons with a subjective type of perception go beyond what is actually given to them and bring a lot of themselves. Their perception is subject to a subjective attitude towards what is perceived, an overly biased assessment, and a pre-existing biased attitude. Such people, when talking about something, tend to convey not what they perceived, but their subjective impressions about it. They talk more about how they felt or thought at the time of the events they are talking about.

Of great importance among individual differences in perception are differences in observation . Observation- this is the ability to notice in objects and phenomena that which is little noticeable in them, does not catch the eye by itself, but which is significant or characteristic from some point of view. A characteristic sign of observation is the speed with which something subtle is perceived. Observation is not inherent in all people and not to the same extent; it depends on the individual characteristics of the individual. For example, curiosity is a factor that contributes to the development of observation skills.

There are differences in perception by degree of intentionality . It is customary to highlight unintentional(or involuntary) and deliberate(voluntary) perception. With unintentional perception, we are not guided by a predetermined goal or task - to perceive a given object. Perception is directed by external circumstances. Intentional perception, on the contrary, is regulated from the very beginning by the task - to perceive this or that object or phenomenon, to become familiar with it. Intentional perception can be included in any activity and carried out during its implementation. But sometimes perception can also act as a relatively independent activity. Perception as an independent activity appears especially clearly in observation, which is deliberate, systematic and more or less long-term (even with

(32) interruptions) perception in order to trace the course of a phenomenon or the changes that occur in the object of perception. Therefore, observation is an active form of human sensory cognition of reality, and observation can be considered as a characteristic of the activity of perception.

Development of perception.

The role of observation activity is extremely important. It is expressed both in the mental activity that accompanies observation and in the motor activity of the observer. Operating with objects, acting with them, a person better knows many of their qualities and properties. For the success of observation, its plannedness and systematicity are important. Good observation, aimed at a broad, versatile study of the subject, is always carried out according to a clear plan, a certain system, with consideration of some parts of the subject after others in a certain sequence. Only with this approach, the observer will not miss anything and will not return a second time to what was perceived.

However, observation, like perception in general, is not an innate characteristic. A newborn child is not able to perceive the world around him in the form of a complete objective picture. The child’s ability to perceive objects manifests itself much later. The child's initial selection of objects from the surrounding world and their objective perception can be judged by the child's examination of these objects, when he does not just look at them, but examines them, as if he is feeling them with his eyes. According to B. M. Teplov, the signs of object perception in a child begin to appear in early infancy (two to four months), when actions with objects begin to form. By five or six months, the child has an increase in cases of fixing the gaze on the object with which he operates. However, the development of perception does not stop there, but, on the contrary, is just beginning.

In the process of teaching a child at school, perception is actively developing, which during this period goes through several stages: 1 - the formation of an adequate image of an object in the process of manipulating this object; 2 - children get acquainted with the spatial properties of objects with the help of hand and eye movements; then, at higher stages of mental development, children acquire the ability to quickly and without any external movements to recognize certain properties of perceived objects, to distinguish them from each other on the basis of these properties (moreover, no actions or movements take part in the process of perception).

The most important condition for the development of perception is work, which Children can manifest themselves not only in the form of socially useful work, for example, in performing their household duties, but also in the form of drawing, modeling, playing music, reading, etc., i.e., in the form of a variety of cognitive objective activities. No less important for child participation in the game. During the game, the child expands not only his motor experience, but also his understanding of the objects around him.

How and in what ways are the peculiarities of children’s perception manifested in comparison with an adult’s? First of all, the child makes a large number of mistakes when assessing the spatial properties of objects. Even the linear eye children are much less developed than adult. It is even more difficult for children's perception of time. It is very difficult for a child to master such concepts as “tomorrow”, “yesterday”, “earlier”, “later”. Certain difficulties arise in children when perceiving images of objects. Thus, when looking at a drawing and telling what is drawn on it, preschool children often make mistakes in recognizing the objects depicted and name them incorrectly, relying on random or unimportant signs.

An important role in all these cases is played by the child’s lack of knowledge and limited practical experience. This also determines a number of other features of children's perception: insufficient ability to highlight the main thing in what is perceived; missing many details; limitation of perceived information. Over time, these problems are eliminated, and by high school age, the child’s perception is practically no different from the adult’s.

33. Illusions and hallucinations, their types and causes.

In some pathological conditions, especially mental and nervous diseases, perception processes may be disrupted. However, perceptual deviations can be observed in quite healthy people. These include illusions - distorted perception of a real-life object or phenomenon. Illusions are classified: - by sensory organs: visual, auditory, tactile, etc.; - depending on the main reasons underlying the distortion of perception: physical, physiological and mental illusions.

Physical illusions are explained by objective physical laws and do not depend on the person himself (can also be caught by a camera) (a spoon in a glass of water seems broken due to the different light-refracting properties of water and air). Physiological illusions find their explanation in the peculiarities of the structure and activity of our sense organs (if we press on the side of the eyeball, the object we are looking at will double due to an increase in the disparity of its image on the retina). Mental illusions are associated both with various mental states of a person and with certain psychological characteristics of perception. In healthy people, against the background of various mental states (expectation, anxiety or fear), mental illusions often arise (in a dark room we are frightened by a figure at the window, and this is just a coat; in every tree standing by the road, we see the person we are waiting for).

Illusions are often caused by ambiguity of perception, which arises due to a lack of essential information or an excess of unimportant information in the image. Ambiguity of perception also arises in cases where several significant images can be extracted from the same image.

Especially numerous visual illusions(optical illusions) that arise when reflecting certain spatial properties of objects (lengths of segments, sizes of objects and angles, distances between objects, shape) and movement. The following types of visual illusions are distinguished: 1. Illusions associated with the structure of the eye (illusions resulting from the effect of irradiation of excitation in the retina - an apparent increase in the size of light figures on a black background compared to dark figures of equal size on a white background or at low background brightnesses - the opposite painting). Thus, a white square on a black background appears larger than an identical black square on a light background. 2. Overestimation of the length of vertical lines compared to horizontal ones when they are actually equal. 3. Illusions caused by contrast. The size of the figures depends on the environment (circles are the Ebbinghaus illusion). 4. Transferring the properties of the whole figure to its individual parts. We perceive a visible figure, each of its parts, not in isolation, but always in a certain whole. (Müller-Lyer illusion - straight lines ending at differently directed angles appear to be unequal in length). The opposite cases of visual illusions are also possible, when, due to the large difference between two adjacent parts, the impression of a collateral difference between the figures as a whole arises, although they are the same (Yastrov’s illusion). 5. Apparent distortion of the direction of lines due to shading, intersections with other lines (parallel lines seem to be curved under the influence of other lines intersecting them - Zellner illusion). 6. There are a number of illusions known. An illusion that occurs when perceiving a face in a photograph or drawing: the eyes will always look directly at you, regardless of the angle from which we look at it. This illusion has not yet been fully explained.

Visual illusions have also been discovered in animals. Camouflage is based on the practical use of illusions, which for animals, birds, fish, and insects is a protective device (example: mimicry - merging with the background, or the use of a deforming pattern that disrupts the outlines of the body).

Causes, causing illusions, are diverse and not clear enough. For example, the illusion of an arrow is explained by the property of perceptual integrity: we perceive the figures and their parts that we see not separately, but in a certain ratio, and we mistakenly transfer the properties of the entire figure to its parts (if the whole is larger, then its parts are larger). However, not all types of visual illusions have a convincing interpretation.

Illusions can be observed not only in the field of vision, but also in other areas of perception. This is how A. Charpanier’s illusion of gravity is known: if you lift two objects that are identical in weight and appearance, but different in volume, then the smaller one will be perceived as heavier (and vice versa). The basis of this illusion is: what we know is that the greater the size, the volume, the greater the weight. And when this expectation does not correspond to reality, an illusion arises. In the field of touch, Aristotle’s illusion is known: if we cross our index and middle fingers and simultaneously touch a ball or pea with them (roll them), we will perceive not one ball, but two.

Illusions can also arise under the influence of previous perceptions. Such, for example, are the contrasting illusions observed when developing an attitude using the Uznadze method. After repeated (33) perception of very different objects (in weight, size, volume, etc.), objects that are equal in the same respect are perceived by a person as unequal; an object located in the place of a previously perceived smaller object appears larger. Contrast illusions are often observed in the field of temperature and taste sensations: after a cold stimulus, a thermal stimulus seems hot, after a sensation of sour or salty, sensitivity to sweet increases.

So, the illusion is characterized by the presence of sensory messages that are incorrectly deciphered by one person, and sometimes by many people.

hallucinations- these are perception disorders when a person, due to mental disorders, sees, hears, feels something that does not exist in reality. This is a perception that is said to be not based on an external object, otherwise it is an “imaginary, false perception.”

Hallucinations are, as a rule, a consequence of the fact that perception is saturated not with external actual impressions, but with internal images of a person who is in the grip of hallucinations. They are experienced as truly perceived, i.e. people during hallucination actually see, hear, smell, and do not imagine or imagine. For the hallucinating person, subjective sensory sensations are as valid as those emanating from the objective world.

We can observe hallucinations in mental illness, as well as in healthy people in experiments with sensory isolation or when using certain drugs (hallucinogens); hallucinations can also be instilled in a person in deep hypnotic sleep.

Hallucinations are usually classified according to the senses: visual, auditory, olfactory, and others. The greatest interest is usually caused by visual hallucinations, which are distinguished by their unusual diversity: visions can be formless (smoke, flames, fog), or, conversely, seem clearer than images of real objects. The size, color, and mobility of phenomena are also characterized by large amplitude. The content of visual hallucinations has a very strong emotional impact: it can frighten, cause horror or, on the contrary, interest and admiration.

In psychiatric diagnosis, great importance is attached to the division of hallucinations into true and false (pseudohallucinations). True hallucinations are characterized by sensory clarity, they unfold in the real space of one or another analyzer and “patients not only think that they see and hear, but actually see and hear” (E. Kraepelin). The behavior of patients usually corresponds to the content of hallucinatory experiences, and they are convinced that the people around them see and hear the same things as they do. Pseudohallucinations They differ from the true ones in that they do not have complete sensory-physical clarity of images, and this brings them closer to ideas. Patients talk about what they see and hear, adding “as if,” although they insist on the reality of their hallucinations. The pseudohallucinatory image unfolds in the imagined, or rather, intrapsychic (subjective) space of one or another analyzer, so patients can report the ability to “see” beyond the horizon or through opaque barriers, and also report voices “inside the head.” Sometimes from the group of pseudohallucinations they distinguish extracampal hallucinations, which are projected beyond the range of the corresponding analyzer. At the same time, patients “see” behind them, behind the wall, and “hear” many hundreds of kilometers away.

In healthy people, against a background of fatigue or exhaustion, visual or auditory hallucinations similar to pseudohallucinations sometimes briefly occur when falling asleep.

Visual and auditory hallucinations are often divided into simple(photopsia - perception of flashes of light, stars, sparks; acoasms - perception of sounds, noise, crackling, whistling, crying) and complex(verbal – perception of articulate speech).

Hallucinations also occur in conditions of sensory isolation. There is a well-known experiment conducted at McGill University in 1956 by Heron and his colleagues. Also known is the experiment of Lilly, a neurophysiologist who in 1953 tried to test for himself what kind of experience an organism immersed in an aquatic environment can acquire in conditions of complete absence of interaction with its usual environment. He spent several hours isolated in a caisson (a large tank filled with water with a high concentration of salt, the water temperature is close to human body temperature). Since then, many features of the “caisson” have been studied in order to understand how this internal reality arises. The primary role here is played by the absence of the effect of gravity, because the subject retains 90% of the energy that under normal conditions he spends on overcoming his own gravity, and this energy can be directed to internal activities.

34. Representations, their main characteristics.

We receive primary information about the world around us through sensation and perception. The excitement that arises in our senses does not disappear without a trace at the very moment when the effect of stimuli on them ceases. After this, so-called sequential images appear and persist for some time. However, the role of these images for a person’s mental life is relatively small. Much more important is the fact that even after a long time after we perceived an object, the image of this object can be again - accidentally or intentionally - evoked by us. This phenomenon is called "performance". Thus , performance - this is the mental process of reflecting objects or phenomena that are not currently perceived, but are recreated on the basis of our previous experience.

The basis of representation is the perception of objects that took place in the past. There are several types of representations: - memory representations(ideas that arose on the basis of our direct perception in the past of any object or phenomenon); - representations of the imagination. At first glance, this type of representation does not correspond to the definition of the concept of “representation”, because in the imagination we display something that we have never seen, but this is only at first glance. Imagination is not born out of nowhere, and if we, for example, have never been to the tundra, this does not mean that we have no idea about it. We have seen the tundra in photographs, in films, and also read its description in a geography or natural history textbook, and based on this material we can imagine the image of the tundra. Consequently, imagination representations are formed on the basis of information received in past perceptions and its more or less creative processing. The richer the past experience, the brighter and fuller the corresponding representation can be.

Representations arise not by themselves, but as a result of our practical activity. At the same time, the representations have great value not only for the processes of memory or imagination, but they are extremely important for all mental processes that ensure human cognitive activity. The processes of perception, thinking, and writing are always associated with ideas, as well as memory, which stores information and thanks to which ideas are formed.

Views have their own characteristics:

- visibility . Representations are sensory-visual images of reality, and this is their closeness to images of perception. But perceptual images are a reflection of those objects of the material world that are perceived at the moment, while representations are reproduced and processed images of objects that were perceived in the past. Therefore, representations never have the degree of clarity that is inherent in images of perception - they, as a rule, are much paler.

- fragmentation . Representations are full of gaps, certain parts and features are presented brightly, others are very vague, and still others are absent altogether. For example, when we imagine someone's face, we clearly and distinctly reproduce only individual features, those on which, as a rule, we fixed our attention. The remaining details only appear slightly against the background of a vague and indefinite image.

- instability and impermanence . Thus, any evoked image will disappear from the field of your consciousness, no matter how hard you try to hold it. And you will have to make another effort to evoke it again. In addition, representations are very fluid and changeable. First one and then another detail of the reproduced image comes to the foreground. Only people who have a highly developed ability to form ideas of a certain type (for example, musicians have the ability to form auditory ideas) can these ideas be sufficiently stable and constant.

It should be noted that ideas are not just visual images of reality, but are always to a certain extent generalized images. This is their proximity to concepts.

) Generalization exists not only in those representations that relate to a whole group of similar objects (the representation of a chair in general, etc.), but also in the representations of specific objects. We see every object familiar to us more than once, and each time we form some kind of new image this object, but when we evoke in our consciousness an idea of ​​this object, the image that arises is always of a generalized nature. This generalized image is characterized primarily by the fact that it emphasizes and shows with the greatest clarity the constant features of a given object, and on the other hand, the features characteristic of individual, private memories are absent or presented very faintly.

Our ideas are always the result of a generalization of individual images of perception. The degree of generalization contained in a presentation may vary. Representations characterized by a high degree of generalization are called general notions.

Thus: On the one hand, representations are visual, and in this they are similar to sensory and perceptual images. On the other hand, general ideas contain a significant degree of generalization, and in this respect they are similar to concepts. Thus, representations are a transition from sensory and perceptual images to concepts.

Representation, like any other cognitive process, performs a number of functions in the mental regulation of human behavior. Most researchers identify three main functions: - signal(the essence consists in reflecting in each specific case not only the image of an object that previously influenced our senses, but also diverse information about this object, which, under the influence of specific influences, is transformed into a system of signals that control behavior. I. P. Pavlov believed that ideas are the first signals of reality, on the basis of which a person carries out his conscious activity. He showed that ideas are very often formed according to the mechanism of a conditioned reflex. Thanks to this, any ideas signal about specific phenomena of reality. When in the process of your life and activity you encounter some either an object or some phenomenon, then you form ideas not only about what it looks like, but also about the properties of this phenomenon or object. It is this knowledge that subsequently acts as a primary orientation signal for a person. For example, when you see an orange an idea arises of it as an edible and quite juicy object. Therefore, an orange is able to satisfy hunger or thirst); - regulating(closely related to the signaling function and consists in selecting the necessary information about an object or phenomenon that previously affected our senses. Moreover, this choice is made not abstractly, but taking into account the real conditions of the upcoming activity. Thanks to the regulatory function, it is precisely those aspects, for example, motor ones, that are updated ideas on the basis of which the task is solved with the greatest success); - tuning(manifests itself in the orientation of human activity depending on the nature of the influences environment. Thus, while studying the physiological mechanisms of voluntary movements, I.P. Pavlov showed that the emerging motor image ensures the adjustment of the motor apparatus to perform the appropriate movements. The tuning function of representations provides a certain training effect of motor representations, which contributes to the formation of an algorithm of our activity).

Thus, ideas play a very significant role in the mental regulation of human activity.

35. Classification of representations (by modality, content, degree of generalization), their characteristics.

Currently, there are several approaches to constructing a classification of representations. Since ideas are based on past perceptual experience, the main classification of ideas is based on the classification of types of sensation and perception. Therefore, it is customary to distinguish the following types of representations: visual, auditory, motor (kinesthetic), tactile, olfactory, gustatory, temperature and organic.

It should be noted that this approach to classifying representations cannot be considered as the only one. Thus, B. M. Teplov said that the classification of representations can be carried out according to the following criteria: 1) according to their content representations of mathematical, geographical, technical, musical, etc. .; 2) by degree of generality; from this point of view we can talk about private and general representations. In addition, the classification of representations can be carried out according to the degree of manifestation volitional efforts.

Classification of ideas based on sensations, i.e. by type of analyzer:

Visual representations . Most of the ideas we have are connected with visual perception. A characteristic feature of visual representations is that in some cases they are extremely specific and convey all the visible qualities of objects: color, shape, volume. However, more often than not, one side predominates in visual representations, while the others are either very unclear or absent altogether. For example, often our visual images are devoid of volume and are reproduced in the form of a picture, but a non-volumetric object. Moreover, these pictures in one case can be colorful, and in other cases - colorless. The nature of our visual representations mainly depends on the content and the practical activity in the process of which they arise. Thus, visual representations play a central role in the visual arts, because not only drawing from memory, but also drawing from life is impossible without well-developed visual representations. Visual representations also play an important role in the pedagogical process. Even the study of a subject such as literature requires the “inclusion” of the imagination to successfully master the material, which, in turn, relies heavily on visual representations.

In area auditory ideas are of utmost importance speech And musical representation. In turn, speech representations can also be divided into several subtypes: phonetic representations And timbre-intonation speech representations. Phonetic representations occur when we imagine a word aurally without associating it with a specific voice. This kind of representation is quite important when learning foreign languages. Timbre-intonation speech ideas take place when we imagine the timbre of the voice and the characteristic features of the intonation of a person. This kind of performance is of great importance in the work of an actor and in school practice when teaching a child expressive reading.

The essence of musical ideas lies mainly in the idea of ​​the relationship between sounds in pitch and duration, since a musical melody is determined precisely by pitch and rhythmic relationships.

Another class of representations is motor representations . By the nature of their occurrence, they differ from visual and auditory ones, since they are never a simple reproduction of past sensations, but are always associated with current sensations. Every time we imagine the movement of any part of our body, a weak contraction of the corresponding muscles occurs. If we exclude the possibility of this reduction, then representations become impossible. It has been experimentally proven that whenever

we motorically imagine the pronunciation of a word, instruments record contractions in the muscles of the tongue, lips, larynx, etc. Consequently, without motor ideas we would hardly be able to use speech and communication with each other would be impossible. Thus, with any motor representation, rudimentary movements are performed that give us corresponding motor sensations. But the sensations received from these rudimentary movements always form an inextricable whole with certain visual or auditory images. In this case, motor representations can be divided into two groups: submissions O movement of the whole body or its individual parts And speech motor representations. The former are usually the result of the fusion of motor sensations with visual images (for example, imagining the bending of the right arm at the elbow, we, as a rule, have a visual image of a bent arm and motor sensations coming from the muscles of this arm). Speech motor representations are the fusion of speech-motor sensations with auditory images of words.

It should be noted that auditory representations are also very rarely purely auditory. In most cases, they are associated with motor sensations of the rudimentary movements of the speech apparatus. When imagining an object, we accompany the visual reproduction with the mental utterance of a word denoting this object, therefore, together with the visual image, we reproduce an auditory image, which, in turn, is associated with motor sensations. A relatively clear visual representation is possible only when reproduced together with an auditory image.

Thus, all the main types of our ideas are, to one degree or another, connected with each other, and the division into classes or types is very arbitrary. We talk about a certain class (type) of representations in the case when visual, auditory or motor representations come to the fore.

Another type of presentation is spatial representations . The term "spatial representations" is applied to those cases where the spatial form and placement of objects are clearly represented, but the objects themselves can be represented very indefinitely. As a rule, these representations are so schematic and colorless that at first glance the term "visual image" is inapplicable to them. However, they still remain images - images of space, since they convey one side of reality - the spatial arrangement of things - with complete clarity.

Spatial representations are mainly visual-motor representations, and sometimes the visual component comes to the fore, sometimes the motor component. In everyday life, we also use this type of representation, for example, when it is necessary to get from one point to another, we imagine a route and move along it; the image of the route is constantly in our minds. As soon as we are distracted, i.e. this idea leaves consciousness, we can make a mistake in movement, for example, passing our stop. Therefore, when moving along a route, spatial representations are very important. Spatial representations are also very important in mastering a number of scientific disciplines.

Also all views are different by degree of generalization: on single And are common . One of the main differences between ideas and images of perception is that images of perception are always only single, that is, they contain information only about a specific object, and ideas are very often generalized. Single representations are ideas based on the observation of a single object. Are common representations are representations that generally reflect the properties of a number of similar objects.

It should also be noted that all views differ according to the degree of manifestation of volitional efforts. In this case, it is customary to distinguish between voluntary and involuntary representations. Involuntary e ideas are ideas that arise spontaneously, without activating the will and memory of a person. free ideas are ideas that arise in a person as a result of volitional effort in the interests of the goal.

36. Individual characteristics of ideas and their development.

All people differ from each other in the role that representations of one kind or another play in their lives. For some, visual representations predominate, for others, auditory representations predominate, and for others, motor representations predominate. The existence of differences between people in the quality of ideas is reflected in the doctrine of “types of ideas.” In accordance with this theory, all people can be divided depending on the predominant type of representations into four groups: persons with a predominance of visual, auditory and motor representations, as well as persons with representations of a mixed type (they use representations of any type to approximately the same extent).

A person with a predominance of ideas visual type, remembering the text, imagines the page of the book where this text is printed, as if reading it mentally. If he needs to remember some numbers, for example a telephone number, he imagines it written or printed. A person with a predominance of ideas auditory type, remembering the text, it is as if he hears the spoken words. They also remember numbers in the form of an auditory image. Person with a dominant view motor type, remembering the text or trying to remember some numbers, pronounces them to himself.

It should be noted that people with pronounced types are extremely rare. Most people have representations of all these types to one degree or another, and it can be quite difficult to determine which of them play in this person lead role. Moreover, individual differences in this case are expressed not only in the predominance of ideas of a certain type, but also in the characteristics of ideas. Thus, in some people, ideas of all types are very bright, lively and complete, while in others they are more or less pale and schematic. People who are dominated by bright and lively ideas are usually referred to as the so-called figurative type. Such people are characterized not only by the great clarity of their representations, but also by the fact that representations play an extremely important role in their mental life. For example, remembering any events, they mentally "see" pictures of individual episodes related to these events; thinking or talking about something, they make extensive use of visual images, etc.

All people have the ability to use any kind of representation. Moreover, a person must be able to use representations of any type, since performing a certain task, for example, mastering educational material, may require him to predominantly use representations of a certain type. Therefore, it is advisable to develop ideas.

Today there is no data that allows us to unambiguously indicate the time when children’s first ideas appeared. It is quite possible that already in the first year of life, ideas, while still closely connected with perception, begin to play a significant role in the mental life of the child. However, a number of studies have shown that children's first memories of life events date back to the age of one and a half years. Therefore, we can talk about the emergence of “free ideas” in children precisely at this time, and by the end of the second year of life, visual ideas already play a significant role in the child’s life.

Speech (auditory-motor) concepts also reach a relatively high development in the second year of life, since without this the process of mastering speech and the rapid growth of the child’s vocabulary observed at this age would not be possible. The appearance of the first musical auditory ideas, expressed in memorizing melodies and singing them independently, dates back to this period.

Representations play an exceptionally important role in the mental life of a preschool child. Most studies have shown that a preschooler, as a rule, thinks visually, in images. Memory at this age is also largely based on the reproduction of ideas, so the first memories of most people are in the nature of pictures, visual images. However, children's first ideas are quite pale. Despite the fact that representations are more significant for a child than for an adult, they are more vivid in an adult. This suggests that in the process of human ontogenesis, the development of ideas takes place.

Psychological experiments show that the brightness and accuracy of representations increase under the influence of exercises. Our ideas develop in the process of activity, and that activity that requires the participation of ideas of a certain quality.

The most important condition for the development of ideas is the presence of sufficiently rich perceptual material. The essence of this statement is that our ideas largely depend on the usual way of perception, and this must be taken into account when solving specific problems. For example, most people often represent words of a foreign language visually, and words of their native language - auditory-motor. This is explained by the fact that we constantly hear our native language and learn to speak in the process of communicating with people, and, as a rule, we study a foreign language from books. As a result, representations of foreign words are formed in the form of visual images. For the same reason, our ideas about numbers are reproduced in the form of visual images.

The fact that ideas are formed only on the basis of perceptual images must be taken into account in the learning process. It is inappropriate to set premature tasks that require free manipulation of ideas without support in perception. For example, if you ask students to mentally imagine the location of the cities of Moscow and Tver on a map, they are unlikely to be able to do this if they do not know the map well.

The most important stage in the development of ideas is the transition from their involuntary emergence to the ability to voluntarily evoke the necessary ideas. Research has shown that there are people who are unable to voluntarily create ideas. Therefore, the main efforts in developing the ability to operate with representations of a certain type should be aimed at developing the ability to voluntarily evoke these representations. It should be borne in mind that every representation contains an element of generalization, and the development of representations follows the path of increasing the element of generalization in them.

Increasing the generalizing value of ideas can go in two directions. One way is the way schematization. As a result of schematization, the representation gradually loses a number of private individual characteristics and details, approaching the scheme. For example, the development of spatial geometric concepts follows this path. Another way is the way of development typical images. In this case, ideas, without losing their individuality, on the contrary, become more and more specific and visual and reflect a whole group of objects and phenomena. This path leads to the creation of artistic images, which, being as concrete and individual as possible, can contain very broad generalizations.

37. Features of attention as a mental process. Objective and subjective phenomena of attention and inattention.

Attention in its subjective and objective manifestations clearly demonstrates the systematic nature of human mental activity. Any form of such activity - be it active perception, in-depth thinking, focusing on memory images or on the high-quality execution of complex motor coordination - presupposes, requires, and is even a direct expression of the work of attention. Moreover, attention has always been associated with such fundamental concepts of psychology as consciousness and will. From this it is clear that the fate of the problem of attention and the history of its discussion were inextricably linked with the history of psychology. There was a time when the concept of attention was eliminated from scientific psychology and was declared a fiction and a source of pseudo-problems. At the same time, applied aspects of attention continued to occupy the minds of representatives of various professions: teachers, actors, lawyers, doctors, operators technical systems, astronauts, etc. Thanks to this, the factual base of the psychology of attention was continuously enriched and experimental research on attention was stimulated. Of course, in parallel, new theories, explanatory schemes and models of this “mysterious” process were created.

Attention is a psychological phenomenon regarding which until now there is no consensus among psychologists. On the one hand, the question of the existence of attention as an independent mental phenomenon is considered: some authors argue that attention cannot be considered as an independent phenomenon, since it is present to one degree or another in any other mental process; others defend the independence of attention as a mental process.

On the other hand, there is disagreement about , to which class of mental phenomena attention should be attributed. Some believe that attention is a cognitive mental process. Others associate attention with the will and activity of a person, based on the fact that , that any activity, including including cognitive, is impossible without attention, and attention itself requires the manifestation of certain volitional efforts.

Example: a schoolchild is doing a task, his mental activity is directed or focused on something. This direction and concentration of mental activity on something specific is called attention..

In turn, the direction of mental activity should mean its selective nature, i.e. isolating from the environment specific objects, phenomena that are significant for the subject, or choosing a certain type of mental activity. The concept of direction also includes the preservation of activity for a certain period of time. For example, you can easily direct your attention to the solution of a certain task, but if you cannot keep the object of the corresponding activity in the field of your attention, then you are unlikely to be able to solve this task.

Another characteristic of attention is concentration - greater or lesser depth in an activity. Obviously, the more complex the task, the greater should be the intensity and intensity of attention, i.e., greater depth is required. On the other hand, concentration is associated with distraction from everything extraneous. Otherwise, when you cannot distract yourself from someone else, solving the problem becomes more difficult.

Direction and concentration are closely related. One cannot exist without the other. However, despite the close connection between them, these concepts are not identical. Directionality is associated with the transition from one classes to another, and concentration - with depth in the lesson.

In order to understand what role attention plays in human mental activity, imagine that you are looking at some group of objects. Some objects that are in the center of your visual field will be perceived most clearly by you, others that are on the periphery of your visual field will be less clearly perceived. A similar analogy can be constructed in relation to our consciousness: what constitutes the meaning of our

activity, occupies the center of our consciousness, and what is currently insignificant goes to the periphery, or “side field,” of consciousness. It should be noted that this analogy is just that, an analogy. You can look at some object, but at the same time think about something completely different. In this case, the “central field” of your consciousness will be occupied by what you are thinking about, and not by what you are looking at. If we imagine our consciousness graphically, then we should draw two circles: one inside the other. The large circle will be called the zone of unclear consciousness, and the small circle will be called the zone of clear and distinct consciousness, or the zone of attention.

Thus, attention ensures clarity and clarity of consciousness, awareness of the meaning of mental activity at a given moment in time.

Attention, like any mental process, is associated with certain physiological phenomena. In general, the physiological basis for the release of individual stimuli and the flow of processes in a certain direction is the excitation of some nerve centers and the inhibition of others.

Subjectively, the state of attention is characterized by dividing the current experience into two parts. The units of the focal area are stable, perceived clearly and distinctly, brightly and vividly, while the contents of the periphery of consciousness are vague and seem to merge. They speak of the clarity of complex, holistic images in those cases when details are distinguishable in them, and of distinctness if these images stand out sharply among other contents of consciousness. So, from the inside, attention is characterized by increased clarity and distinctness perception of those objects on which it is focused.

(It can also be said that the state of attention is characterized by the division of the current experience into two parts: into a figure and a background (Gestalt psychology), or, according to Titchiner, use the wave metaphor - max attention on the crest).

Externally (objectively) the state of attention is characterized by two kinds of changes in our movements. First, there are a number of movements of an adaptive nature, as a result of which the stimulus that has attracted attention can more successfully affect our perceiving organ. In the case of “internal attention”, i.e. attention to ideas or thoughts, as such an adaptive movement, for example, setting our eyes to infinity should be considered: it eliminates everything that is in front of us from the field of view and thereby helps to fix the thought that has attracted our attention. Secondly, when we are attentive, we delay all movements that are not of this adaptive character; thinking, peering or listening, we usually stop moving our hands, stop talking, slow down our steps. In addition, the state of attention also affects the internal motor processes of our body, primarily on breathing. When paying attention, breathing slows down. Also, an objective characteristic of attention is a mnemonic criterion - "The true art of memory is attention."

The phenomena of inattention include states of absent-mindedness. They differ both in their nature and in the reasons that presumably cause them. Absent-mindedness of the first type can be the result of fatigue, headache, monotonous activity, then the eyes are directed into space, sounds coming from outside merge into a monotonous hum, consciousness is flooded with random uncontrolled perceptions and memories of a fragmentary nature. But states of imaginary absent-mindedness are also distinguished, when absent-mindedness is a negative consequence of deep internal concentration; it is divided into poetic (a person is in a state of reverie, daydreaming) and professorial (concentrating on a problem, searching for a solution to a problem, etc.) absent-mindedness. Student absent-mindedness appears as a consequence of extreme mobility and distractibility of attention; here attention involuntarily and chaotically moves from one external object to another. Senile absent-mindedness is characterized by poor switching ability combined with insufficiently active concentration. There is also a class of phenomena of habitual inattention: we do not notice the ticking of the clock, the pressure of clothes and shoes, the beating of the heart, breathing, etc.

38. Classification of types of attention.

In modern psychology, it is customary to distinguish several types of attention, for the following reasons:

1. By object (by modality (quality) of activity):

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  Sensual (sensory)
• 
  Mental (thought-oriented)
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  Executive (directed towards movement)
• 
  Affective (for emotion)

• 
  Direct(the object is interesting in itself)
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  Indirect(derivative, apperceptive - an object is interesting in connection with something that attracts a person)

• 
  Involuntary(passive, reflex) – depends on the characteristics of the object. An activity captivates a person by itself, due to its fascination, entertainment or surprise. Usually, when involuntary attention occurs, we are dealing with a whole complex of reasons, and depending on internal conditions, involuntary attention is divided into: 1. forced attention(determined by the characteristics of the stimulus, the nature of the external stimulus, here we must include, first of all, the strength, or intensity, of the stimulus, these are: strong odors, loud sounds, bright light, strong shock, explosions, rhythmic repetition of a weak stimulus, etc., also attracts attention new, unexpected, strange. This is innate, intense attention); 2. involuntary attention(depends on the individual experience of the subject, determined by the characteristics of the organism, these are: hunger, fatigue, etc. So, a well-fed and hungry person will react completely differently to a conversation about food. A person experiencing a feeling of hunger will involuntarily pay attention to the conversation, in which we're talking about about food.); 3. habitual attention(the general orientation of the personality is determined by the interests of the subject, this is the so-called professional attention)
• 
  free(active, purposeful) – depends on the characteristics of the subject. Its main feature is that it is controlled by a conscious goal. This kind of attention is closely connected with the human will and was developed as a result of labor efforts. The main function of voluntary attention is the active regulation of the course of mental processes. Both types of attention are closely related to each other, since voluntary attention arose from involuntary. Voluntary attention is a behavior of the mind. Depending on the conditions, voluntary attention is divided into: 1. actually arbitrary(light conditions); 2. strong-willed(includes efforts when there are obstacles, difficulties); 3. expectant(if a person is warned and waits); 4. spontaneous(post-voluntary).

• 
  Involuntary (min activity)
• 
  free
• 
  Post-voluntary/spontaneous (max activity) - This type of attention, like voluntary, is purposeful in nature and initially requires volitional efforts, but then the person “enters” into the work: the content and process of the activity, and not just its result, become interesting and significant. Attention from voluntary becomes, as it were, involuntary (in contrast to genuine non-produced attention, post-voluntary attention remains associated with conscious goals and is supported by conscious interests; at the same time, unlike production, there is no or almost no volitional effort).

Despite the fact that all people are characterized by common features of perception, each of us is endowed with individually unique differences in this process. The individual nature of perception is manifested in different dynamics, accuracy, depth, emotionality and similar characteristics of our perception.

Types of information perception

When perceiving information, a person may be dominated by certain images, for example, auditory, visual, etc. A person whose visual images predominate in the perception of information is called a visual person. A typical cognitive position for a visual person is the desire to look, imagine, observe. From the history of science it is known that this type of perception was characteristic of A. Einstein. “I think with visual sensations,” this is what the great scientist said about himself.

A person whose perception of information is dominated by auditory images is called an auditory person. The typical cognitive position for him is to listen and speak.

A person in whom haptic images predominate in the perception of information when combined with the sense of smell and some other sensory impressions is called a kinesthetic person. The typical cognitive position for him is to act and feel. In a stressful situation, such a person tries to “hide” in one dominant sensory channel. In comfortable conditions, all human sensory channels open, which is a prerequisite for creative activity.

Types of perception

Depending on individual differences, the following types of perception are distinguished:

• analytical, synthetic and analytical-synthetic;
• subjective, objective and subjective-objective;
• artistic, mental and artistic-thinking.

The analytical type is characterized, first of all, by “getting stuck” in the details of objects and phenomena. Such people focus on all the details, however, it is sometimes difficult for them to understand the general essence of the phenomenon. People of the synthetic type are characterized by a generalized reflection of phenomena and definition main point what's happening. They perceive the general impression, without attaching importance to the details, and are not inclined to go deeper into them. Analytical-synthetic perception is equally characterized by attempts to understand the essence of a phenomenon and actually confirm it. They simultaneously perceive details, the object, and the phenomenon as a whole.

The subjective type of perception is characterized by coloring the images of perceived objects or events with one’s own emotions, experiences, hesitations, and one’s attitude towards them. This perception is quite disorganized. The objective type, on the contrary, is characterized by accuracy, impartiality and neutrality in the perception of phenomena. The subjective-objective type combines the features of the previous two.

The artistic type of perception characterizes people in whom the first signaling system, the image, dominates. It is easier for them to perceive figurative information (mainly visual or auditory). In the thinking type, the second signaling system is dominant - the word. Verbally presented information (also mainly visual or auditory) is perceived more easily by them. In people with an artistic-thinking type of perception, there is no unambiguous dominance of the second or first signaling system.

Men and women: differences in perception - video