Types and properties of perception in psychology. Types of perception in psychology and their brief characteristics What is perception

4.3. Perception

Concept of perception. In the process of cognitive activity, a person rarely deals with individual properties of objects and phenomena. Usually an object appears as a combination of various properties and parts. Color, shape, size, smell, sounds made, the weight of an object simultaneously evoke various sensations that are in close connection with each other. Based on the interconnection and interdependence of various sensations, the process of perception occurs. Such forms of reflection as sensations and perception are links in a single process of sensory cognition. But if sensations reflect individual properties of objects and phenomena of the surrounding reality, then perception gives them a holistic image; unlike a complex of sensations, it is objective. Perception presupposes the presence of various sensations; moreover, it is impossible without sensations, but cannot be reduced to their sum, since, in addition to sensations, it includes a person’s past experience in the form of ideas and knowledge.

Perception- this is a holistic reflection of objects and phenomena in the totality of their properties and parts with their direct impact on the senses.

The process of perception occurs in close connection with other mental processes: thinking (we realize what is in front of us), speech (we designate an object with a word), memory, attention, will (we organize the process of perception), is guided by motivation, has an affective-emotional coloring (how - this is how we relate to what we perceive).

Perception is a more complex process than sensations. Perception is not a passive copying of an instantaneous impact, but a living, creative process of cognition, a complex activity, important part which are movements. If the eye is motionless, it stops seeing the object; to pronounce sounds, tension in the muscles of the larynx is necessary; to know the properties of the object, it must be examined - using hand movements. In this case, four levels of perceptual action are distinguished: 1) detection (is there a stimulus?); 2) discrimination (formation of a perceptual image of the standard) - these two actions are perceptual; 3) identification – identification of a perceived object with an image stored in memory; 4) recognition – assigning an object to a certain class of objects previously perceived; the last two actions are related to identification.

Thus, perception is a system of perceptual actions, the mastery of which requires special training and practice.

In a person’s life, perception is of great importance - it is the basis of orientation in the surrounding world, in society, a necessary component of social relations, the perception of a person by a person.

Physiological basis of perception. There are no special organs of perception; analyzers provide the material for it. In this case, the primary analysis, which takes place in the receptors, is supplemented by the complex analytical and synthetic activity of the brain ends of the analyzer. Since any object outside world acts as a complex complex stimulus (for example, a lemon has size, color, taste, size, temperature, smell, name, etc.), then perception is based on complex systems of nervous connections between different analyzers. We can say that the physiological basis of perception is complex activities analyzers.

Properties of perception. There are two substructures in the structure of perception – properties and types. The properties of perception include selectivity, objectivity, apperception, integrity, structure, constancy, meaningfulness.

Objects and phenomena of the surrounding world affect a person in such diversity that he cannot perceive all of them with a sufficient degree of clarity and react to them at the same time. From huge amount a person perceives only a few influencing objects with the greatest clarity and awareness.

The predominant selection of some objects over others characterizes selectivity perception. What is in the center of a person’s attention during perception is the object of perception, everything else that is secondary is the background of perception. They are very dynamic: what was the subject of perception can merge with the background upon completion of the work, and vice versa, something from the background can become the subject of perception. This is of great practical importance: when you need to help highlight an object from the background, use bright color(orange vests of railway workers, orange and blue suits of astronauts), a special font (rules in textbooks), etc. Sometimes, when it is necessary to make it difficult to isolate an object, to dissolve it in the background, they use camouflage, camouflage robes, nets with branches, silver color ( airplanes, fuel tanks, etc.).

The selectivity of perception is determined by the needs of the individual, interests, attitudes, and personal qualities of a person.

Objectivity perception is its relation to objects of the external world. A person perceives an object not only as a complex of characteristics, but also evaluates it as a certain object, not limiting itself to establishing its individual characteristics, but always assigning it to some category, for example: oval, green, odorous, tasteless, watery - this is a cucumber, a vegetable; round, orange, fragrant, rough, sweet - this is an orange, a fruit.

Sometimes the process of recognition does not occur immediately - a person has to peer, listen, and approach the object to obtain new information about it. Recognition may be nonspecific, when a person defines only the type of object (some kind of car, building, person), or specific (this is my brother’s car, this is our history teacher), etc.

Objectivity influences human behavior in a certain way: if you present him with a brick and a block of dynamite, he will behave differently.

Very important properties of perception associated with objectivity are its integrity and structure. Perception is always there holistic image of the object. Visual sensations do not provide objective reflection. The frog's retina (an "insect detector") signals several features of an object, such as movement and the presence of angles. The frog does not have a visual image, so surrounded by motionless flies it can die of starvation. The ability of holistic visual perception is not innate. In people born blind, who gain sight in adulthood, perception does not arise immediately, but after several weeks. This fact once again confirms that perception is formed in the process of practice and represents a system of perceptual actions that must be mastered.

Structurality perception lies in the fact that it is not just a sum of sensations, it reflects the relationships between the various properties and parts of an object, i.e. their structure. Each part included in the image of perception acquires meaning only when it is correlated with the whole and is determined by it. Thus, when listening to music, we perceive not individual sounds, but the melody; we recognize this melody when it is performed by an orchestra, or by one musical instrument, or the human voice, although the auditory sensations are different.

Since the psyche is a subjective image of the objective world, people perceive the same information differently, depending on the characteristics of the perceiving personality - its orientation, views, beliefs, interests, needs, abilities, experienced feelings. The dependence of perception on the content of a person’s mental life, the characteristics of his personality and past experience is called apperception. This is one of the most important properties of perception, since it gives it an active character.

Constancy- this is the relative constancy of the perceived size, color and shape of objects when changing distance, angle, and illumination. Its source is active actions systems of analyzers that provide the act of perception. The perception of objects under different conditions allows us to identify a relatively constant invariant structure of the object. Constancy is not an innate, but an acquired property. In the absence of constancy, orientation is impossible. If perception were not constant, then with every step, turn, and movement we would encounter “new” objects without recognizing them.

Human perception is not only a sensory image, but also an awareness of a specific object isolated from the surrounding world. Thanks to understanding the essence and purpose of objects, their targeted use becomes possible, Practical activities with them. Meaningfulness perception represents awareness of the displayed objects, and the reflection of any single case as a special manifestation of the general is generality perception. Meaningfulness and generalization of perception are achieved by understanding the essence of objects in the process of mental activity. Perception proceeds as a dynamic process of searching for an answer to the question: “What is this?” To comprehend, to consciously perceive an object means, first of all, to name it, generalize it in a word, and assign it to a certain class. We compare an unfamiliar object with a familiar one, trying to classify it into a certain category. Swiss psychiatrist G. Rorschach (1884–1928) showed that even meaningless inkblots are always perceived by normal people as something meaningful (butterflies, a dog, clouds, a lake, etc.). Only some mentally ill people tend to perceive random inkblots as such.

Types of perception. Perception varies by type depending on the predominant role of one or another analyzer, since not all analyzers play the same role: usually one of them is the leading one.

Depending on the leading analyzer, there are the following types perception.

1. Simple– visual, auditory, tactile. Every man owns everyone simple types perception, but one of these systems is usually more developed than the others, which corresponds to the three main areas of sensory experience: visual, auditory and kinesthetic.

Visual type. All perceived information is presented to this type of people in the form of vivid pictures and visual images. They often gesture, as if drawing imagined images in the air. They are characterized by statements: “I clearly see that...”, “Look...”, “Let’s imagine...”, “The solution is already emerging...”.

Auditory type. These people use other words: “It sounds like this...”, “I resonate with this...”, “I hear what you say...”, “Listen...”, etc.

Kinesthetic type. People belonging to this type remember movements and sensations well. In conversation they use kinesthetic words and expressions: “If you take, for example...”, “I can’t grasp the thought...”, “Try to feel...”, “It’s very hard...”, “I I feel that...".

Pronounced representatives of these types have specific characteristics in behavior, body type and movements, speech, breathing, etc. The leading sensory system influences the compatibility and effectiveness of communication with other people. In life, people often do not understand each other well, in particular because their leading sensory systems do not coincide. If you need to establish good contact with a person, then you need to use the same procedural words that he uses. If you want to establish distance, you can deliberately use words from a different system of ideas, different from that of your interlocutor.

2. Complex types of perception are distinguished if several analyzers are mobilized equally intensively: visual-auditory; visual-auditory-tactile; visual-motor and auditory-motor.

3. Special types of perception are distinguished depending on the perceived object: time, space, movements, relationships, speech, music, person by person, etc.

Depending on the degree of purposefulness of a person’s activity, involuntary and voluntary perception are distinguished. Involuntary perception can be caused both by the characteristics of surrounding objects and by the correspondence of these objects to the interests and needs of the individual. free perception involves setting a goal, applying volitional efforts, and deliberately choosing an object of perception. Voluntary perception turns into observation - a purposeful, systematic perception of an object with a specific, clearly recognized goal. Observation is the most developed form of voluntary perception and is characterized by great activity of the individual.

The most important requirements for the observation process are: setting a goal, planning, systematicity, clarity of the task, its fragmentation, setting particular, more specific tasks. Observation must be specially trained. If a person systematically practices observation and improves his culture, then he develops such a personality trait as observation - the ability to notice characteristic but subtle features of objects and phenomena.

Perception disorders. Perception does not always give an absolutely correct idea of ​​the world around us. Sometimes, in a state of mental fatigue, a person experiences decreased susceptibility to external stimuli - hyposthesia. Everything around becomes dim, fuzzy, faded, shapeless, uninteresting, frozen. With sudden physical or emotional fatigue, there is an increase in susceptibility to completely ordinary stimuli - hyperthesia. Daylight suddenly blinds, sounds are deafening, smells are irritating, even the touch of clothes on the body seems rough and unpleasant.

Erroneous perception of real objects is called illusions(from Latin illusio - deceptive). Illusions can be affective, verbal and pereidolic. Affective illusions are caused by a depressed state, bad mood, anxiety, fear - even clothes hanging on a hanger can seem like a robber, a random passer-by - a rapist, a murderer. Verbal illusions consist of a false perception of the content of other people's real conversations. It seems to a person that everyone is condemning him, hinting at some unseemly actions, mocking him, threatening him. Pereidolic illusions are caused by a decrease in the tone of mental activity, passivity. Ordinary patterns on wallpaper, cracks on the ceiling, on the floor, various light and shadows are perceived as bright paintings, fairy-tale characters, fantastic images, extraordinary panoramas.

Illusions should be distinguished from hallucinations - a psychopathological manifestation of perception and memory. Hallucination – This is an image (visual, auditory, olfactory, tactile, gustatory) that arises in the mind regardless of external stimuli and has the meaning of objective reality for a person. Hallucinations are a consequence of the fact that perception is saturated not with external impressions, but with internal images. A person who is in the grip of hallucinations experiences them as truly perceived - he really sees, hears, smells, and does not imagine all this. For him, subjective sensory sensations are as real as those emanating from the objective world.

Perception- direct sensory reflection of objects and phenomena in a holistic form as a result of awareness of their identifying characteristics.

Cognizing the surrounding reality and interacting with it, we encounter the objective world. Objects are identified by us by their totality characteristic features. Images of perception are built on the basis of various sensations. However, they are not reduced to a simple sum of these sensations. Perception is associated with the identification, understanding, comprehension of objects, phenomena, situations, with their attribution to a certain category, type, class. Only by including a phenomenon in a certain system of categories, covering it with the appropriate concept, can we evaluate and interpret its individual parts and elements. Even when considering ordinary points, monotonous elements, we strive for their compositional organization (Fig. 1, 2).

Being a sensory stage of cognition, perception is inextricably linked with thinking, has a motivational orientation, and is accompanied by an emotional response.

Seeing means relating perceived visual signals to one of the hypotheses existing in the brain's stores. If two different hypotheses can “work”, then the brain chooses between them - and then we see either a duck or a rabbit (Fig. 3); an Eskimo standing with his back to us at the entrance to the cave, or an Indian turning in profile (Fig. 4).

Being associated with the process of identification, perception includes processes of comparison, correlating a given object with standard standards stored in memory. Well-known objects are perceived on a stereotypical basis, quickly and confidently. (How easily literate people recognize letters and how difficult it is to recognize them at the first stages of learning.) During the process of ontogenesis, perceptual learning occurs.

People selectively see what they are used to seeing. Familiar objects are perceived simultaneously (simultaneously), while little-familiar objects are perceived in a structurally unfolded, step-by-step manner (successively). In the latter case, a hypothesis is first put forward about the essence of the object, a decision is made on its categorization, nominalization, and then its characteristics are critically assessed.

The mental development of a person is associated with the development of a culture of perception - an educated, aesthetically developed person is able to enjoy the grace of form, color and sound harmony of objects and environmental phenomena.

Rice. 5. Recording eye movements ( oculogram) when perceiving an object. The most informative points of the contour are recorded, the visual route is structurally organized.

The process of perception is perceptual action. Its effectiveness depends on what features of the object will be identified by the subject as the initial supporting elements.

The most important integral part each type of perception are motor processes: movement of the eye along the contour of an object, movement of the hand along the surface of the object, movement of the larynx, reproducing an audible sound (Fig. 5).

Neurophysiological basis of perception.

The physiological mechanism of perception is the complex analytical-synthetic activity of analyzers - the formation of complex conditioned reflexes to complex stimuli.

In the human visual apparatus, two systems interact. One of them selects individual fragments in an object, the other composes a complete image from established sub-images (Fig. 6).

Possible incompleteness of the complete image is filled with textures stored in memory. Therefore, we see contours even where they are not drawn, but only possible.

To recognize a situation, the brain stores ready-made generalized schemes ( frames- “skeletons”). Initially grasping the situation, we then strive to fill the cells of the emerging frame - and our eyes look for the corresponding detail.

Perception is an active process of forming an image of an object. This activity is already manifested at the receptor level. Three pairs of extrinsic muscles of each eye carry out continuous eye movement. Some of them transfer the peripheral image of an object to the center of the retina, where visual acuity is highest, others provide tracking of moving objects. The perception of an object is carried out by “palpating” eye movements: fast and large-amplitude ( saccadic) movements, smaller translational and reciprocating movements ( tremor) with a frequency from 20 to 150 Hz and an amplitude of 5-15′ arc. min, and drift— slow movements at a speed of 6′ arc. min/sec and amplitude up to 30′ arc. min, preventing the development of local adaptation. Eye movements scan the shape and those key elements of the object of perception that are essential in constructing a visual image.

In the formation of a perceptual image, the left and right hemispheres of the brain perform different functions. The sensory side of perception is served by the right, and the categorical side by the left hemisphere of the brain.

Classification of perception phenomena.

Depending on the participation of the will, the purposefulness of perception is divided into two forms: involuntary (unintentional, not associated with volitional tension and a pre-set goal) and voluntary, intentional (purposeful).

Depending on the modality of the receptors they differ visual, auditory and tactile perception.

There are also complex types of perception: perception of space And time perception.

Depending on the complexity, development, and perceptual activity, perception differs between simultaneous (one-act) and successive (stage-by-stage, sequential).

There are also three levels of perception:

1) sensory- sensory embrace of an object, its entry into the field of consciousness;

2) perceptual— comprehension of an object, assigning it to a certain category, class of objects;

3) operational— activity scope of the object.

Perceptions can also be classified depending on the specifics of the object of reflection (perception of works of art, speech, etc.). Perception is usually included in some activity, but can also act as an independent activity.

Rice. 7. The tendency of consciousness to make an object meaningful is so great that we even “see” non-existent boundaries between the triangle and the background. The incompleteness of the complete image is filled with textures stored in memory.

Systematic, specially organized perception to resolve any issue is called observation.

General patterns of perception.

Different types of perception have specific patterns. But in addition to intraspecific ones, there are general patterns of perception: 1) meaningfulness and generality; 2) objectivity; 3) integrity; 4) structure; 5) selective focus; 6) apperception; 7) constancy.

1. Meaningfulness and generality of perception. By perceiving objects and phenomena, we realize and understand what is perceived.

Perception is associated with the attribution of a given object to a certain category, concept, with its designation in a word. (It is no coincidence that children, when encountering unfamiliar objects, always ask for their name.) The categorical correlation of perceived objects organizes the entire process of perception, its adequacy and direction. Only by determining the category of the perceived object will you recognize all its features.

Perception largely depends on the purpose and objectives of the activity. In an object, those aspects of it that correspond to the given task come to the fore.

Rice. 10. The perception of a fragment of an object is facilitated by its inclusion in the context of the situation. In the upper rectangle, the letters are not recognizable by their fragments. In the lower rectangle, the letters are easy to read due to the situational context.

Rice. 9. These scattered spots are combined into a single visual image, if you turn the image 180º, you will understand its meaning.

Thanks to the meaningfulness and generality of perception, we conjecture and complete the image of an object from its individual fragments (Fig. 7 and 8).

Most simple form comprehension of objects and phenomena - recognition. Here perception is closely related to memory. To recognize an object means to perceive it in relation to a previously formed image.

Recognition may be generalized, when the object belongs to some general category (for example, “this is a table”, “this is a tree”, etc.), and differentiated(specific), when the perceived object is identified with a previously perceived single object. This is a higher level of recognition. For this kind of recognition, it is necessary to identify features specific to a given object, its signs.

Recognition is characterized by certainty, accuracy and speed. When recognizing, a person does not identify all the features of an object, but uses its characteristic identifying features. (So, we recognize a steamer from a distance by the presence of a pipe and do not confuse it with a boat.)

Recognition becomes difficult when there are insufficient identification features. The minimum of features necessary to identify an object is called threshold of perception.

Rice. 11. The integrity of perception is violated if the individual elements of the object are excessively scattered. Thus, when a newspaper photograph is enlarged tenfold, the raster dots of a typographic cliche do not merge into a complete image (when the image is removed by 1 m, the integrity of perception is restored).

2. Objectivity of perception. A person recognizes mental images of objects not as images, but as real objects, taking the images outside, objectifying them. Objectivity- the attribution of brain information about objects to real objects. Objectivity of perception means adequacy, correspondence of images of perception to real objects of reality, “objectivity” of the image.

3. Integrity of perception. In objects and phenomena of reality, their individual signs and properties are in a constant, stable relationship. In perception, as in the mental image of an object, these stable connections between the components of an object or phenomenon, which is expressed in the integrity of perception.

Even in cases where we do not perceive some features of a familiar object, we mentally supplement them. We strive to combine the individual parts of the object into a single holistic formation familiar to us (Fig. 9, 10, 11).

Thus, the integrity of perception is a reflection of an object as a stable systemic integrity (even if its individual parts are not observed under given conditions). The integrity of perception is violated if the object cannot be comprehended (Fig. 12).

4. Structurality of perception. We recognize various objects thanks to the stable structure of their features. In the process of perception, the relationships between the parts and sides of an object are identified. Awareness of perception is inextricably linked with the reflection of stable relationships between the elements of the perceived object (Fig. 12 and 13).

In cases where identifying the structure of an object is difficult, the perception of the object as a whole becomes difficult.

5. Selective focus of perception. Of the countless objects and phenomena surrounding us, we currently highlight only a few of them. It depends on what a person’s activity is aimed at, on his needs and interests.

Selectivity of perception - preferential selection of an object from the background. In this case, the background serves as a reference system against which the spatial and color qualities of the figure are assessed.

Rice. 14. In the figure on the left, two vertical sectors are predominantly distinguished, and on the right, horizontal sectors.

The object stands out from the background along its contour. Contour is contrast. We perceive a contour due to a “jump” in brightness or color. The sharper and more contrasting the outline of an object, the easier it is to highlight it. And vice versa, if the contours of the object are blurred, inscribed in the lines of the background, the object is difficult to distinguish. (This phenomenon underlies camouflage.)

Selectivity of perception is accompanied by centralization of perception - a subjective expansion of the zone of focus of attention and compression of the peripheral zone. When objects are equivalent, the central object and the larger object are predominantly highlighted (Fig. 15, 16).

Objects located along the vertical and horizontal axes are subject to priority selection (Fig. 14).

Rice. Fig. 18. Distribution of visual fixation points on a square panel when perceiving homogeneous material.

If the object and the background are equivalent, then they can transform into each other (the background becomes the object, and the object becomes the background (Fig. 17).

However, even when perceiving homogeneous material, attention is distributed unevenly (Fig. 18).

6. Apperception(from lat. ad- to and perceptio- perception) - the dependence of perception on experience, knowledge, interests and attitudes of the individual. Looking at a burning fire from afar, we do not feel its warmth, but this quality is included in the perception of the fire. In our experience, fire and warmth entered into a strong connection. By looking at a frozen window, we also add to our visual perception the temperature sensations gleaned from past experience. Depending on past experience, knowledge, and professional orientation, a person selectively perceives their various aspects (Fig. 19).

Apperception can be personal and situational (at night in the forest a stump can be perceived as the figure of a dangerous animal).

7. Constancy of perception. The same familiar objects are consistently perceived by us in changing conditions: under different illumination, from different points of view, at different distances. Constancy of perception(from Latin constantis - constant) - independence of the reflection of the objective qualities of objects (size, shape, characteristic color) from the changed conditions of their perception - illumination, distance, angle of view.

The image of the size of an object on the retina of the eye when it is perceived from close and far distances will be different. However, we interpret this as the distance or proximity of the object, and not as a change in its size (Fig. 20, 21).

Rice. 20. Constancy of perception. Of two objects of equal size, the more distant one produces a smaller image on the retina. However, this does not affect the adequate assessment of their actual value. At the same time, the brain takes into account information about the accommodation of the lens (the closer the object, the more curved the surface of the lens), about the convergence of the visual axes (the convergence of the visual axes of the two eyes) and about the tension of the eye muscles.

When perceiving a rectangular object (a folder, a sheet of paper) from different points of view, a square, a rhombus, or even a straight line may appear on the retina of the eye. However, in all cases we retain the inherent form of this object. A white sheet of paper, regardless of its illumination, will be perceived as a white sheet, just as a piece of anthracite will be perceived with its inherent color quality, regardless of lighting conditions.

Constancy of perception is not a hereditary quality; it is formed through experience and the learning process. Pilots of supersonic aircraft at first interpret the very rapid approach of an object as its increase in size, and a temporary lack of constancy arises. Non-constancy can arise when perceiving relief in photographs and drawings (Fig. 22).

Non-constancy(from lat. illudere- to deceive) - an illusion of perception, distortion in the perception of objects. The most common visual illusions. They arise for a number of reasons. Illusion of irradiation, in which light objects appear larger than equal dark objects, is associated with the irradiation of excitation in the retina (Fig. 23).

The perceived size of figures depends on their objective environment. Yes, thanks illusions of contrast objects of the same size will appear different in size if one of them is surrounded by large objects, and the other is surrounded by smaller objects (Ebbinghaus illusion - Fig. 24, 25).

In the Müller-Lyer illusion, two identical lines ending in differently oriented angles appear to be unequal in length. Due to the large difference between two adjacent parts of identical objects, one of them appears large (Fig. 26).

Rice. 25. Identical figures on a smaller zero appear larger.

Rice. 24. Illusion of contrast. The inner circle on the left appears larger than the inner circle on the right. In reality they are equal (Ebbinghaus illusion).

Vertical lines are overestimated compared to horizontal ones (Figure 27). Parallel lines appear non-parallel due to the influence of lines intersecting them (Zellner illusion - Fig. 28). Segments of a straight line intersecting two vertical rectangles are perceived as segments located at different levels (Pogendorff illusion - Fig. 29). Due to the overestimation of the size of acute angles, a circle with a square inscribed in it seems to be bent at the corners of the square (Fig. 30.)

Both receptor mechanisms and the functioning of the central nervous system are involved in the occurrence of illusions. Some visual illusions are caused by the optical properties of the eye.

Not only visual illusions are subject to illusions, but also other types of perception So, if you hold in your hands two objects that are identical in weight and appearance, but different in volume (for example, a large and a smaller ball, but not in weight), then the smaller object is perceived as heavier (Charpentier illusion) . This is explained by our general experience - the larger the object, the greater its weight.

If, having crossed the index and thumb, we touch a ball or pencil, placing these objects in the resulting crosshair, then we will feel a double touch (Aristotle’s illusion). This is explained by the fact that the receptive fields of opposite fingers usually touch different objects.

Contrast illusions are common not only in the field of visual perception, but also in the field of auditory, gustatory, tactile, temperature and kinesthetic sensations. Thus, the contrast illusion of kinesthetic sensitivity arises after repeated perception of objects that differ in weight and volume - the subsequent presentation of objects equal in the same respects is perceived illusory: the object located in the place of a previously presented smaller object seems larger and heavier (Uznadze’s installation experiments) .

In some cases, visual illusions may be the cause of inappropriate actions. For example, when entering the tunnel on Triumfalnaya Square (formerly Mayakovsky Square) in Moscow, cars often drove into oncoming traffic. Expert psychologists found that the advertising light, then located on the building of the Sofia restaurant, fell in such a way that it created the illusion of a displacement of the entrance to the tunnel. After replacement billboard traffic violations have stopped.

Illusions are recognized thanks to our psychological knowledge. They are not only “pests” of our perception, but also a factor ensuring the adequacy of conventional images. Thanks to illusions, we translate two-dimensional images of artistic paintings into three-dimensional spatial representations, and we interpret images of different sizes as the same, if the accompanying circumstances are taken into account.

Features of the perception of space and time.

Space and time are universal forms of existence of matter. The perception of space and time reflects objective spatiotemporal relationships between objects.

Perception of spatial qualities of an object consists of the perception of size, shape, volume, distance, location of objects and their movement. The size and shape of objects are perceived as a result of a combination of visual, tactile and kinesthetic (muscular-motor) sensations in human experience.

One of the factors of spatial perception is the binary nature of the senses and the symmetry of the human body. When perceiving the spatial features of objects, their location in space, a person proceeds from the normal position of his body, perpendicular to the plane of the earth, and takes into account the data of the balance apparatus.

Shape perception- a complex perceptual process. Fast, spasmodic eye movements are of great importance in it. In this case, optical data is processed by the brain in combination with data from the oculomotor muscles - the eye, as it were, feels the object.

Rice. 35. Constancy in the perception of relief images. Flip the pattern 180º - small protrusions will be perceived as indentations, and large indentations as protrusions. This depends on the subconscious interpretation of the direction of light, usually moving towards the observer.

The process of visual perception has a certain stage - microgenesis. At the first stage (30 - 50 ms), the spatial position, distance and size of the visual stimulus (object) are assessed. When perceiving a moving object, it takes from 50 to 140 ms to determine the parameters of its movement. Next, the specification of the shape of the perceived object is carried out.

The entire process of formation of a stable spatially localized visual image is completed 300 ms after the presentation of the stimulus.

The eye, in the words of I.M. Sechenov, functions as a measuring device. When perceiving flat shape A clear distinction of the outlines of an object, its contour, is essential. When perceiving a three-dimensional form, the main role is played by depth vision. The closer the object is, the more intense the depth vision. Thus, the shape of a cube appears more elongated up close, and flattened at a distance. Tunnels, alleys and similar extended objects, when viewed from a distance, seem shorter than when perceived at close range.

When perceiving the shape of an object, its interaction with the background is essential.(from the French fon - bottom, base). In visual perception, the background serves as the basis for a frame of reference—the color and spatial characteristics of an object are evaluated in relation to the background. The background provides information about the situation of perception and ensures the constancy of perception.

Rice. 37. Vase of Ruby. In this figure, one perceives alternately the image of a vase on a black background, then two profiles on a white background. However, if one of the objects becomes the subject of active research, then it will also become a stable object of perception.

Rice. 36. And in this picture only the central figure is consistently perceived. Why?

In situations of equivalence between the object and the background, figure duality effect. In this case, periodic fluctuations in attention occur—its fluctuation occurs (Fig. 36, 37).

Clarity of perception is facilitated by the sharp delineation of the contour of the object. The process of its perception begins with the difference in the contour of an object. Only after this does its shape and structure differ.

Relief and volume of objects, depth of space are perceived due to the fact that their image falls on non-coinciding (disparate) points of the retina of two eyes - in this case, the image in the retinas of both eyes does not completely coincide and, as a result, stereoscopic effect

Remoteness of objects is also perceived due to binocular vision. The perception of the distance of an object depends not only on the size of its image on the retina, but also on the strength of the tension of the eye muscles and the curvature of the lens. When viewing distant objects, the lens becomes flat. This change in the curvature of the lens depending on the distance of the objects in question is called accommodation. But accommodation provides information about the distance of objects only within a range of up to 6 m. If objects are located at a greater distance, then information about their distance comes to the brain from the relative position of the visual axes (Fig. 38).

Rice. 39. Stereoscopic visual perception. Relief, volume, depth are reflected thanks to binocular vision - vision with two eyes. At the top is the perception of an object with one left and one right eye. Below is an object visible with both eyes.

Rice. 38. Reflection of the depth of space, the distance of the object. To assess the distance of objects, information is used about the state of the lens of the eye (the phenomenon of accommodation), the magnitude of the angle of convergence of the visual axes, the tension of the eye muscles, the overlap of some objects by others, data on linear and aerial perspective.

For the perception of the distance of objects, not only the accommodation of the lens and the relative position of the visual axes are essential, but also linear and aerial perspective. The receding lines seem to converge at the horizon. Linear perspective is enhanced by the weakening of the difference between light and shadow, the loss of individual small details. Aerial perspective consists of a slight change in the color of objects under the influence of the bluish tint of the air. Spatial perspective is also determined by the density gradient of the texture of objects (Fig. 40).

Space depth detection is limited deep vision threshold

Essential for the perception of the distance of objects is the comparison of their size with the known size of other objects. This is of particular importance in cases where objects are more than 450 m away (the maximum distance about which information is received as a result of the relative positions of the visual axes). The distance from which objects are identified is called spatial discrimination threshold(see tables below).

Rice. 40. The depth of an object is determined by the density gradient of its texture.

Spatial thresholds of perception of individual
objects:

Rice. 41. The threshold of depth vision is the minimum difference in the distance of two objects perceived by the observer. The depth vision threshold is expressed quantitatively by the difference in the corresponding parallactic angles. For most people, the Depth Vision Threshold is 5* (five seconds of arc).

Spatial thresholds for distinguishing elements of human appearance:

The spatial movement of objects, their movement is perceived due to the movement of their image on the retina. The movement of the eye and head is also essential for the perception of movement. When estimating the speed of movement, an adjustment is made for the distance of the moving object. Motion Perception Threshold equals 5 ang. min/sec, which corresponds to the maximum speed of movement of the tracking eye. The direction of movement of an object is determined by a change in its position relative to other objects, as well as by the mechanism of paired eyes (Fig. 42).

Rice. 42. Paired work of the eyes is one of the mechanisms that ensures the perception of the direction of movement of objects.

The ability to correctly assess the spatial relationships of objects is called eye. There are static and dynamic eye meters:

Static eye meter - determination of the size of stationary objects, their distance and distances between them by a stationary observer;

Dynamic eye - the ability to determine the relationship between moving objects.

There are significant individual characteristics eye gauge.

The ability to see the smallest objects is called visual acuity or resolving power of the eye. Visual acuity is equal to one (it is normal) if a person distinguishes objects with an angular size of 1 minute (people with normal vision distinguish objects 3 cm in size at a distance of 100 m). Visual acuity depends on preliminary familiarization with the object, on its expectation in the field of view, color, contrast between the object and the background, and the duration of the visual stimulus. Visual acuity decreases with increasing angular velocity of an object.

In its genesis, visual perception is associated with touch.

Touch- one of the main sources of our spatial ideas. (At one time it was even believed that the hand taught the eye to see. Subsequently, however, this was refuted by experimental data.) The palpating movements of the hands reproduce the contour of an object, as if taking a cast from it.

There is a distinction between passive and active touch:

Passive touch forms a tactile image of the contour of an object when it is moved on a resting hand;

Active touch is characterized by actively feeling an object.

Bimanual touch—feeling with both hands—optimizes perceptual strategy. In this case, the functions of the hands are separated; the left hand (for right-handed people) performs the function of support and reference.

Perception of time- reflection of the duration, speed and sequence of phenomena. Temporary relationships are reflected by:

chronometry— counting time, measured using uniform movement of objects (clock hands);

chronology— reflections of time in accordance with events common to all (seasons, historical events);

chronognosia— subjective time (subjective experience of the duration of events depending on their significance and emotional coloring).

When assessing time intervals and duration of events, the peculiarities of subjective perception of time should be taken into account. With positive emotions, time is underestimated, and with negative emotions, it is overestimated. An understatement of time is always the result of the dominance of excitation over inhibition. The exaggeration of time is associated with the predominance of inhibition, which occurs as a result of exposure to monotonous, insignificant stimuli. Under the same activity conditions, time less than 1 minute is usually exaggerated, and time greater than 5 - 10 minutes is underestimated.

The entire complex of analyzers is involved in time reflection. However, time intervals are differentiated to the greatest extent by the kinesthetic and auditory analyzers. Thus, if the intermittency of visual influences differs at intervals between them of up to 1/20 sec, then the intermittency of tactile influences differs at intervals of 1/40 sec, and of sound influences - at intervals of 1/100 sec.

The time period is estimated more accurately when performing movements and when perceiving auditory influences. In this case, an involuntary motor and sound accompaniment arises, activating the process of time perception.

In activities involving the establishment of time intervals, a person achieves a great development of the “sense” of time. The perception of time is disrupted in extreme conditions (stress, affect, frustration), with prolonged sensory deprivation, alcohol and drug toxicity.

Perception, person by person.

Rice. 43. Probability of differences in facial elements at low exposures.

Rice. 44. Probability of the supporting role of facial elements during identification.

As an object of perception, a person has a special social significance. When perceiving a person who is new to himself, the subject identifies in him those features of his appearance, which provide information about it mental and social qualities. Particular attention is paid to posture, gait, gestures, facial expressions, voice, speech, behavioral habits, manners, and clothing. One of the first places is occupied by the professional characteristics of a person, his social status and basic moral and communicative qualities: angry, kind, cheerful, withdrawn, sociable, etc. Individual elements, features of the face and head are selectively identified and identified with varying accuracy (Fig. 43 , 44).

Personality characteristics are interpreted by her appearance different ways:

emotional- social qualities are attributed to an individual depending on the aesthetic attractiveness of his appearance (an outwardly beautiful person is interpreted as a good person);

analytical- each of the elements of appearance is associated with a specific mental property of a person (compressed lips, frowned eyebrows - an angry person, etc.);

perceptual-associative- a person is attributed the qualities of another person who is externally similar to him;

socially associative- a person is given qualities of a certain social type according to certain characteristic external signs(in glasses and a hat - an intellectual; in an overcoat - a military man).

A generalized image of a person based on external signs influences interaction with that person.

The perception of a person by a person is subject to certain socially formed stereotypes, standards, and standards. The general impression of a person, the idea of ​​his social status are transferred to all particular manifestations of a given personality (““). Initially perceived information about a person may have a dominant meaning (“primacy effect”).

Significant differences in social status communicating give rise to the “social distance effect”. The extreme manifestation of this effect is expressed in disdain and hatred towards representatives of other social groups.

People's assessments and feelings when they perceive each other are multifaceted. But basically they are divided into conjunctive- uniting and disjunctive- disconnecting. Disjunctive feelings are caused by what is condemned in a given environment.

A.A. Bodalev performed the following experiment. Two groups of people were shown the same photograph and asked to describe the person depicted in the photograph. One group was told that they would see a portrait of a hero, while the other group was warned that they would see a picture of a criminal.

It turned out that the subjects were under the influence of the stereotype and attitude in their assessments. Here is a verbal portrait, given by man, who believed that in front of him was the image of a hero: “A young man of about 25 - 30 years old. A strong-willed, courageous face, with regular facial features. The look is very expressive. His hair is disheveled, unshaven, and his shirt collar is unbuttoned. Apparently, this is the hero of some kind of battle, although he is not wearing a military uniform.”

The subject, who believed that in front of him was a portrait of a criminal, gave the following verbal description: “This beast wants to understand something. Looks smart and without interruption. Standard chin, bags under the eyes, massive figure, aging, thrown forward..."

Depending on the importance people attach various features external image of the individual, they perceive each other differently.

Perception of oral speech.

From a physical point of view, speech is a combination of sounds that varies in frequency and intensity.

Maximum intelligibility of oral speech occurs at a speech intensity of 40 dB. At a speech intensity of 10 dB, speech sounds are not perceived as related words. For satisfactory transmission of speech messages in noise conditions, the sound intensity of speech must be 10 dB higher than the noise level. Speech is especially drowned out by low-frequency noise.

Speech intelligibility increases with visual control of the speakers, the vocabulary of speech that is familiar to listeners, significant intensity of speech, and repetition of complex phrases in their original form.

The optimal speech rate is 70 words per minute; the upper limit is 120 words per minute.

As a socially conditioned phenomenon of speech perception is gnostic process- the process of determining the meaning and meaning of perceived speech structures; this process is characterized by different levels of recognition and discrimination. In the perception of oral speech there are sensory, perceptual and semantic levels.

Depending on the maturity, the process of perceiving oral speech can be successive(expanded) and simultaneous(collapsed).

Perception of oral speech is accompanied by probabilistic prediction. Long words are understood and recognized better than short words. The volume of the phrase should not exceed 7 ± 2 words. The most significant words should be placed in the first third of the phrase. Based on the beginning of standard phrases, the listener predicts the phrase as a whole. The level and depth of speech prediction depend on the speech culture of the listener.

The semantic perception of a speech message also depends on its situational involvement, logical semantic structure, length and depth of phrases, their communicative significance, the listener’s attitudinal orientation and the level of his mental development.

A person’s perception of the surrounding subject environment.

The environment surrounding a person is perceived by him in its entirety, and not as a set of isolated objects. This environment is considered by a person as a field of his life.

The place of permanent residence acts as a psychological center for a person, an arena of his activity, and a source of certain mental states. (Psychologist William Sheldon even identifies special psychological types of people depending on their mental interaction with the environment. Ectomorphic the type perceives the environment depending on its mood. Mesomorphic the type perceives the environment as an object of mastery - travelers, climbers, entrepreneurs. Endomorphic type perceives the environment as a lyrical object - poets, artists.)

The environment dictates a certain way of behavior for a person, activates and inhibits his motor reactions, and creates a certain mood. The environment around a person evokes an aesthetic reaction and intimate associations.

Aesthetic and organization surrounding a person environment is a sign of culture, civilization, and psychological competence of society.

Rice. 45. Proportionality of the human body.

Different peoples at different times develop their own aesthetic standards. However, there are also general psychological norms of beauty. What is beautiful is what is harmonious, and what is harmonious is what optimizes the process of perception. The human body itself is beautiful, harmonious and proportionate (Fig. 45).

Greek word harmonia means harmony, proportionality, balance of parts of the whole. The parts of a harmonious object are subdivided, subordinated, and ordered in such a way that they provide a certain focus of attention. An object is convenient for perception if it has a certain functional and structural organization.

In works of art, the proportional relationship of the so-called “ golden ratio“- the smaller part relates to the larger as the larger part relates to the whole (approximately 3:5, 5:8; more precisely - 100:161). The positive effect of incentives in such a ratio was empirically discovered in ancient times. The use of the “golden section” proportion in architecture, sculpture, painting, music (intervals in sound time, the ratio of sounds and heights) promotes the integrity of perception, gives the object harmony (an ordinary box looks beautiful if its dimensions have the ratio of the “golden section”).

A harmonious object is distinguished by the balance of its elements, the optimal distribution of optical masses, the symmetry and rhythm of the arrangement of its parts.

Rhythm is used to avoid monotony and maintain the activity of perception. For this purpose, rhythmic changes are used in the spatial extent of the elements of the object, in the distances between them, the alternation of their tonality, configuration (alternating thickening and thinning, convexity and concavity, etc.).

When perceiving an object, the weight of its parts is subconsciously interpreted. This interpretation depends on the location of the objects' elements in relation to its vertical and horizontal axes. In the center of the composition, the element weighs less (although it has greater significance), and at the edges it weighs more. It is no coincidence that in the paintings of outstanding masters of painting, the figures located in the center are weighted with various visual techniques (heavier color, larger size, etc.). Elements of an object located in its upper part look heavier than those in the lower part. Elements located on the right appear heavier than those located on the left. (Look closely at Raphael’s painting “The Sistine Madonna”. The figure of the monk on the left side of the picture is depicted larger than the figure of the woman on the right side of the picture - this achieves balance in the entire composition.)

The weight interpretation of the elements of an object depends not only on the size, but also on their color. The heaviest are red and other colors in the long-wavelength part of the spectrum.

In the visual system, vertical orientation predominates. The vertical line is the base to which the relative positions of the parts of the object are attached. When an object is positioned vertically, its symmetrical balance is assessed. Depending on the function of the object, it is given different symmetry:

absolute— repetition of elements on the left and right sides;

relative- repetition of only individual homogeneous elements.

Harmonious object- an object whose content is expressed simply. By simplicity of an object we do not mean its primitive simplification, but clear definiteness, conciseness, completeness and clear unity of its elements. This kind of simplicity is the main advantage of a true work of art.

Under simplicity of composition one should not understand the limited variety of its elements. An object with more parts may be simpler than an object with less. (Thus, a square with its four sides is a simpler figure than a triangle. The greater simplicity of a square lies in the equality of its angles and sides, in the equal distance of the sides from the center and their symmetry relative to the horizontal and vertical axes.) The simplicity of an object is determined not so much by its limitations details as much as the limited number of structural features. An object is simple and concise if its complex content is covered by a minimum number of structural features.

The aesthetic impression of an object is enhanced if it emphasizes natural color, texture of materials used. Combining the same colors of different saturations enhances the impression of the plasticity of the object. The color division must correspond to the functional division. It is advisable to combine functionally homogeneous elements with one color. The dismemberment of the object and the contrast of its elements should not complicate the synthetic side of perception.

The harmonious organization of the subject environment is the avoidance of dullness, dullness, colorlessness and disorder - all that is in Lately became known as an aggressive environment.

Human life should be carried out in an aesthetic, functionally organized, ergonomic environment.

Individual differences in perception.

Life experience, knowledge, interests, level of mental development determine the individual characteristics of perception - its completeness and accuracy. Representatives synthetic type perceptions have greater integrity and emotionality of perception. Representatives of the analytical type show a greater tendency to highlight and explain individual aspects of an object. The most common is the average analytical-synthetic type of perception.

People with insufficient development of differentiation activity are characterized by incomplete and inaccurate perception. It is often supplemented by subjective additions, especially in situations of heightened emotionality. A person’s exposure to rigid stereotypes has a significant impact on perception. Incomplete experience and knowledge lead to fragmented perception, lack of meaningfulness and integrity of perception.

Perceiving objects and phenomena, a person evaluates them. Curiosity, inquisitiveness, analyticalness are expressed in his observation skills- the ability to perceive subtle significant features of phenomena (Fig. 46).

Rice. 46. ​​The ability to observe productively is called observation. In this drawing, the mark on each hand is made by one specific object. Which one?

Perception is otherwise called perception (from the Latin percepcio - I perceive), and the processes of perception are called perceptual processes.

American neurophysiologist J. Pittigrew discovered cortical disparity neurons (from the Latin disparatis - separate). These neurons have two receptive zeros - they are excited only when the image hits both zeros at once. This explains the fact that when perceiving an object with one eye, a stereoscopic effect occurs.

The effect of object movement can also occur if different phases of the object are perceived at short intervals - a stroboscopic effect. Thus, when perceiving a film, when 24 frames with a still image change in one second, the effect of movement occurs.

Bodalev A.A. Perception and understanding of man by man. M., 1989.

This role of the vertical is due to the vertically directed force of gravity constantly acting on all living organisms.

Perception for humans is the sensation of what is contemplated, for animals - sensual contemplation, sensual smell, etc.; priority for the functioning of the sense organs.

Knowledge is possible on the basis of perception; it cannot be perception. Sensations are what sets us apart from the animal world, the ability to objectify the environment. “Sensory cognition” is not perception. “Objects of the surrounding world” and “direct subjective representation” are rather derivatives of perception. “Objects of the surrounding world” are possible only in our “representation”, as an already structured reaction of the nervous system to the environment, in the form of already formed images or phenomena. The world around us is our idea of ​​the environment, but not the environment itself. What actually exists and happens outside the range of our perception, what phenomena and in what capacity are little known to us. Objects and phenomena of the surrounding world are subjects of the environment, as a result of which the “objectivity of the surrounding world” and “direct subjective representation”, in essence, are the content already formed by us, which can be expressed as - the idea of ​​the environment is subjective, and is given in objectivity and phenomenon , How the world. As we see, objects and phenomena are not given ready-made, but are gradually formed by our nervous system, thanks to our ability to perceive the environment in a unique way. This is a long process that involves, in addition to perception, which provides material for future structures, other mechanisms, in particular our ability to structure, which leads to the construction of complete structures from this material and their interconnection. The process of cognition in this series is final, and is based on sensations, not feelings. So it is impossible to explain perception when it is replaced by a subject obtained through this perception, especially when the perception itself is replaced by some “sensory knowledge”. This is not an object of perception, but a subject, and a subject that, during the period of formation, is compared with the environment in the process of perception. “Direct subjective representation” presupposes, first of all, the presence of an object of representation, which is possible with the ability to form images, which, in turn, consists of elements also obtained on the basis of perception. As you can see, there are some inaccuracies that bring confusion and lead to involuntary substitution of concepts. We replace the process of perception with formed images of objects or phenomena, formed on the basis of perception, but they themselves are not perception. The source and subject of perception is the environment, and images and phenomena are the subject of comparison with the environment through perception.

Different interpretations of perception

Some psychologists continue to consider perception as a synthesis of sensations, while sensations are interpreted as subjective experiences of strength, quality, localization and other characteristics of the impact of stimuli on the senses arising as a result of direct sensory cognition.

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  There are four operations or four levels of perception: detection, discrimination, identification And identification. The first two relate to perceptual, the latter to identification actions.

  Detection- the initial phase of development of any sensory process. At this stage, the subject can only answer the simple question of whether there is a stimulus. The next perception operation is discrimination, or perception itself. Its final result is the formation of a perceptual image of the standard. In this case, the development of perception proceeds along the line of identifying specific sensory content in accordance with the characteristics of the presented material and the task facing the subject.

  When the perceptual image is formed, an identification action can be carried out. Comparison and identification are required for identification.

  Identification is the identification of a directly perceived object with an image stored in memory, or the identification of two simultaneously perceived objects. Identification also includes categorization (assigning an object to a certain class of objects previously perceived) and retrieving the corresponding standard from memory.

  Properties of perception

  • Objectivity - objects are perceived not as an incoherent set of sensations, but as images that make up specific objects.
  • Structurality - the object is perceived by consciousness as a modeled structure abstracted from sensations.
  • Apperception - perception is influenced by the general content of the human psyche.
  • distal object when the proximal stimulus changes.
  • Selectivity is the preferential selection of some objects over others.
  • Meaningfulness - an object is consciously perceived, mentally named (associated with a certain category), belongs to a certain class.
  Understanding consists of stages:
  1. Selection - selection from the flow of information of an object of perception
  2. An organization - an object is identified by a set of characteristics
  3. Categorization and assignment to an object of properties of objects of this class

  Constancy of perception

  Constancy - the constancy of perception of the same distal object when the proximal stimulus changes, the ability to recognize the same object on the basis of differing sensory information (sensations). An object perceived in different circumstances and conditions is considered as one and the same. Thus, the brightness of an object, as a quantity characterizing reflected light, changes if you move it from a dimly lit room to a room with good lighting. Nevertheless, when the proximal stimulus information changes, the object is considered to be the same in both cases. We can highlight the constancy of such object properties as size, shape, brightness, color. The constancy of shape perception is studied using a setup, the main elements of which are a standard square (with a side of 10 cm) and a measuring rectangle (10 cm wide). The standard square in the experiment is always inclined towards the observer, and the plane of the measuring rectangle should be perpendicular to the axis of vision of the subject. The height of the measuring rectangle can be changed by the subject using a special button. The subject is asked to select the height of the measuring rectangle so that it has the same visible shape as the tilted standard square. In the experiment, the inclination of the standard square is varied (25°, 30°, 35° and 40°). For each standard inclination value, the subject adjusts the height of the meter four times. This provides data for calculating the coefficient of constancy.

  The constancy of perception is measured by the constancy coefficient according to the Brunswick-Thouless formula:

  K = V − P R − P (\displaystyle K=(\frac (V-P)(R-P)))

  Where V (\displaystyle V)- the height of the rectangular meter, which was installed by the subject in an effort to equalize the visible shapes of the meter and the standard, R (\displaystyle R)- height of the standard square, P = R ⋅ cos ⁡ α (\displaystyle P=R\cdot \cos \alpha ), Where α (\displaystyle \alpha )- angle of inclination of the standard square.

  The constancy of shape perception in experiments with visual field inversion using an invertoscope drops to zero, and during the adaptation process it is restored, reaching the pre-experimental level. Experiments with inversion of the human visual field are carried out to study the mechanisms of constancy of visual perception.

  One explanation for the constancy of perception is based on the distinction between perception and sensitivity (sensation). Perception of the actual properties of objects is a subjective mental process that connects sensations (sensory experience) of the properties of an object with other stimulus information.

  Thus, the property of the size of an object is associated with the distance to the object, the brightness of the object is associated with illumination. A subjective mental process of perception that allows a person to recognize an object as the same even if it is located at different distances from it (the object in this case has a different angular size - if it is at a large distance - a small angular size, if at a small distance - a large angular size size) in some cases is accompanied by “regression to actual objects.” An example of regression to real objects as a consequence of constancy of perception is optical illusions. Thus, the Ponzo illusion shows how the regression carried out by perception to real objects that are located in the three-dimensional world, in the case of a two-dimensional object - a drawing - makes a person perceive a horizontal segment at the converging ends of vertical lines as longer than a segment located at the divergent ends of the same vertical lines, as if the latter is located “closer” to the observer.

  Perception factors

  External

  • size
  • intensity (physical or emotional)
  • contrast (contradiction with the surroundings)
  • movement
  • repeatability
  • novelty and recognition

  Domestic

  • stereotypy of perception, set of perception: expectation to see what should be seen based on past experience
  • needs and motivation: a person sees what he needs or what he considers important
  • experience: a person perceives that aspect of a stimulus that has been taught by past experience
  • self-concept: the perception of the world is grouped around the perception of oneself
  • Personal characteristics: optimists see the world and events in a positive light, pessimists, on the contrary, in an unfavorable one
  • resonance principle - what corresponds to the needs and values ​​of the individual is perceived faster than what does not correspond
  • principle of protection - something that opposes a person’s expectations is perceived worse
  • principle of alertness - what threatens a person’s psyche is recognized faster than others

  Forms and principles of perception

  • Figure - background - perception distinguishes the figure from the background.
  • Constancy - objects are perceived the same for a long time.
  • Grouping - similar stimuli are grouped into structures.
  Grouping principles:
  • Proximity - things located nearby are perceived together.
  • Similarity - similar in some respects is perceived together.
  • Closedness - a person tends to fill in the gaps in the figure.
  • Integrity - a person tends to see continuous forms rather than complex combinations.
  • Contiguity - what is close in time and space is perceived as one.
  • Common zone - stimuli identified in one zone are perceived as a group.

  Result of perception

  The result of the perception process is a constructed image.

  Image - a subjective vision of the real world, perceived through the senses.

  Having received the image, a person (or another subject) produces definition of the situation, that is, evaluates it, and then makes a decision about his behavior.

  Perception in animal psychology

  Perception is inherent mainly in higher living beings; in weak forms, allowing us to speak only about the rudiments of perception, something similar can be found in creatures of the middle stages of evolution.

  The mechanisms of social perception include: reflection, identification, causal attribution.

  Effects of perception

  Social perception is characterized by certain special manifestations of perceptual inaccuracy, called laws, effects, or perceptual errors.

  • Effects of stereotyping:
  • Halo effect (halo effect, halo or horn effect) - a general favorable or unfavorable opinion about a person is transferred to his unknown traits.
  • Sequence Effects:
  • The primacy effect (first impression effect, familiarity effect) - the first information is overestimated in relation to the subsequent one.
  • The effect of novelty - new information about the unexpected behavior of a well-known, close person is given greater importance than all the information received about him previously.
  • Role effect - behavior determined by role functions is taken as a personal characteristic.
  • The effect of presence - the better a person is at something, the better he does it in front of others than in solitude.
  • Advance effect - the absence of previously attributed non-existent advantages leads to disappointment.
  • The effect of leniency - the leader exaggerates the positive traits of his subordinates and underestimates the negative ones (typical for a leader of a permissive and, to some extent, democratic style).
  • The effect of hyper-demandingness - the leader exaggerates the negative traits of his subordinates and underestimates the positive ones (typical for a leader of an authoritarian style).
  • The effect of physiognomic reduction - the conclusion about the presence of a psychological characteristic is made on the basis of appearance features.
  • Beauty effect - a more attractive person is assigned more positive traits.
  • The effect of expectation - expecting a certain reaction from a person, we provoke him to it.
  • In-group favoritism - “insiders” seem better.
  • The effect of negative asymmetry of initial self-esteem - over time there is a tendency towards the opposite of in-group favoritism.
  • Presumption of reciprocity - a person believes that the “other” treats him the way he treats the “other”.
  • The phenomenon of assumption of similarity - a person believes that “his own people” treat other people the same way as he does.
  • Projection effect - a person assumes that others have the same qualities as him.
  • The phenomenon of ignoring the information value of what did not happen - information about what could have happened, but did not happen, is ignored.

  Attribution

  Attribution - attributing characteristics to oneself or another person.

  Perception is the reflection in the human mind of objects or phenomena during their direct impact on the senses. Perception is an active process consisting of the participation of motor components of analyzers (movement of the hand, eye, etc.), the ability to actively move your body during the process of perception. During perception, an adequate image of the object is formed.

  Perception, in contrast to sensation, reflects the object as a whole, in the totality of its properties, and not individual properties.

  To the main properties perceptions include:

  Subjectivity,

  Integrity,

  Structurality,

  constancy,

  Meaningfulness,

  Generality,

  Selectivity,

  Apperception.

  1) Objectivity of perception

  The objectivity of perception is its ability to reflect objects and phenomena of the real world not in the form of a set of isolated sensations, but in the form of individual objects. On the one hand, the inclinations of objective perception are laid down by nature, and there is no doubt that in animals perception is also objective. On the other hand, we can say that objectivity is not an innate property of perception.

  The fact is that the emergence and improvement of this property occurs in the process of ontogenesis, starting from the first year of a child’s life. I.M. Sechenov believed that objectivity is formed on the basis of movements that ensure the child’s contact with the object. Without the participation of movement and activity in general, images of perception would not have the quality of objectivity, i.e. relation to objects of the external world.

  The question of the relationship between biological mechanisms and experience in perception remains not fully resolved. It is known that many babies born almost independently (many birds, lambs, kids and guinea pigs) already have quite developed perception on the first day of their life. They can, in particular, remember the image of their mother. Those chicks and young that are not born independent (sparrows, pigeons, dogs, cats, primates) may not only have very poor perception, but may even be blind in the first days. The relative weakness of the innate in them leads in the future to a more flexible, adaptive, differentiated and - most importantly - meaningful perception in the future.

  2) Integrity of perception

  From individual sensations, perception synthesizes a holistic image of an object; this property of perception is called integrity.

  A holistic image is formed on the basis of a generalization of information received in the form of various sensations about the individual properties and qualities of an object. We do not perceive separately: a person’s eyes, ears, mouth, nose, gloves, coat, tie, hat, trousers, shoes, laces, etc., as well as a person’s voice and his smell. For us, all this is united into one holistic image of a person. In this case, the image even turns out to be multi-layered: we perceive not a head placed on top of a shirt or dress, but a shirt or dress put on a human body, although we do not see this body itself.

  Holistic perception is greatly influenced by the experience of previous observations. If, suppose, a child’s father is very tall and wears glasses, then the child’s model of the world may reflect the connection “tall height = presence of glasses.” Then meeting strangers wearing glasses on the street, the child will consider them somewhat taller than they actually are (especially if there are no other people nearby with whom the stranger’s height can be compared).

  Which receive information from the outside world and transmit it to the brain for processing and understanding what a person sees, hears, smells or comes into contact with. Perception in psychology is already a mental process, which consists not so much in the analysis of information coming from the senses, but in the manifestation of one’s own attitude towards it. Types of perception are identified, and its development in children is also considered.

  In simple words, the online magazine site calls perception a person’s subjective interpretation of incoming information from the outside. A person does not so much look at something as evaluate whether he likes it or not. A person does not so much hear sounds as experience emotions that express his attitude to what he hears. A person does not feel so much as analyze whether he likes the sensations or not.

  In other words, perception is a person’s attitude to the information that comes to him through the senses. That is why all people live in the same world, only their attitude towards it is different.

  Where does disappointment come from? You believed in something, hoped for something, dreamed of something, imagined something. And then bang... and everything turned out not to be what you saw. You are disappointed. And why? Because you lived only by what happened in your imagination. You did not notice reality as it is. If something good happened, you rejoiced like a child, embellishing and adding even more color to the event. If something bad happened, it was as if clouds were hovering over you and a blizzard reigned.

  Fairy tales are what little children believe in, and what adults continue to believe in. Women dream of meeting their princes, who will consider them beautiful maidens when they are unkempt and ugly. Men think that they should be honored and respected just because they are men, warriors, strong people. But there are no knights on this planet. A man cannot love a woman who simply does not love herself enough to have a beautiful appearance. It is impossible to respect a person if he does not show pleasant character traits. When a man hits, it is impossible to respect him. There is fear, but it is not respect.

  It should be understood that fairy tales are people's fantasies. But life is much more prosaic and simple than in fairy tales. Emotions are another aspect in a person’s life that prevents him from looking at the world soberly. Have you ever noticed how you make decisions based on emotions, and then reproach yourself for making the wrong choice? You are happy or angry and make a decision that does not help you get out of the current situation at all. People cheat emotionally, lie, deceive, kill, destroy. But if they could ignore emotions and soberly analyze the situation, they would simply leave when they were no longer welcome, would not enter into an argument when they saw that the person stood his ground, would continue to behave good-naturedly, realizing that a person is afraid, so he fences himself off and hides something. Emotions hide reality from the eyes of a person who is guided by only two concepts - good and bad, like and dislike.

  

  How does a person think who looks at the world around him without emotion, trying to see it, and not what he would like to see? He simply looks at the real state of affairs and thinks: “What is appropriate and not appropriate? What do I want to achieve in this particular situation and how can I do this given the circumstances that are actually happening in reality? On emotions, a person often embellishes and adds on his own. Fears and complexes also participate in the process of creating a distorted picture of the world. For example, people are staring at you. If you are used to people around you being unhappy, then you will think that there is something wrong with you. Although in reality people are just looking at you, and each of them has their own reasons, which can be both bad and good.

  The absence of emotions and the belief that life should be fabulous allows you to sober up, calm down, and accept life as it is. Reality is neither cruel nor unfair. It's just not the way it is described in fairy tales. People can be hypocrites, lie or pretend. This is normal, just like the fact that there are people who behave sincerely with others. Life doesn't have to be a fairy tale because it is what it is. And if you want to live in a fairy tale, you will be disappointed more than once in the world in which you live. But you must understand that fantastic stories are fiction, but people live in reality. A sober view of the world will keep you from being disappointed. Therefore, if you don’t want to suffer, then stop believing in fairy tales and get to know the world in which you really live.

  What is perception?

  Perception is a mental activity that produces a result in the form of an image of a foreign object. Perception is not a process or an analysis of the surrounding world, but an already formed image, the final result, which takes into account knowledge, experience, desires, worldview, beliefs and other mental components of a person.

  Features of perception are:

  1. Structurality.
  2. Objectivity.
  3. Constancy.
  4. Integrity.
  5. Meaningfulness.
  6. Selectivity.

  Perception arouses a lot of interest among psychologists, because thanks to the system that a person uses in assessing the world around him, we can talk about how he will live and what he will come to in the end. The perception of situations, people, surrounding phenomena and objects dictates how a person will live, with what thoughts he will go towards his goals, with what friends he will surround himself with.

  Perception is a subjective assessment of the world around us in which a person lives. How he treats him, that’s what he pays attention to, that’s what he most often comes into contact with, that’s what he lives in.

  A person often thinks in subjective judgments. Everyone sees objective reality as another person does not see it. You see dirty sand on the seashore, and another person notices an excellent resort base in this place, thanks to which you can earn a lot of money.

  

  It has long been no secret that all people can see different things in the same phenomenon. This is called "subjective vision of objective reality." In other words, the world is the same for everyone, but people themselves look at it through the prism of their own fears, judgments, desires, goals, habits, etc. Having noticed a person lying on the side of the road, some will think that he is a homeless person, others – an alcoholic , still others will generally help him, because they will think that he is in trouble. Although in reality everyone sees a person lying on the side of the road.

  Subjective vision forces you to consider whether the way you see the world is true. A man walks towards you and smiles. Some may think that he wants to get to know each other, while others will immediately take him for a maniac from whom they need to defend themselves.

  Reality is the same for everyone, but each person gives it the color that is most beneficial to him. Some people see the world in bright colors, while others see it in dark colors. Optimists enjoy life, while pessimists see the bad in everything. The world doesn’t care what you think about it, how you interpret what is happening, because it will act according to the laws that exist in it, regardless of your thoughts.

  You are given a choice: continue to look at the world through your own “rose-colored” or “gray” glasses in order to notice only the good or only the bad, or still open your eyes and look at it in reality. You see a person on the side of the road, not a homeless person or an alcoholic. There is no need to invent who he is, how he got here, what he needs. Your thoughts and guesses will not change reality.

  

  The quality of your life depends only on your choice, whether to wear glasses or look at the world with a sober look. After all, at every step you have to make a choice. Depending on how you look at a particular situation, you make one decision or another. If you look through the prism of your “glasses,” then you succumb to your own fears, complexes, and desires. And if you look at the world objectively, then you make a decision that is truly beneficial to you.

  For example, you are offered a promotion, which will entail an increase in the number of working hours. If you're wearing glasses, you'll give in to the desire to get more money, so you'll agree to the promotion without hesitation. However, after this you will face discontent from your family: now you can only be seen at home at night. Looking at the situation objectively, you will think about what is more important to you: getting a lot of money, but not seeing your family, or spending time with your loved one and children, but staying in your previous position with a salary that allows you to meet your immediate needs?

  Looking at the world objectively, you have a chance to choose exactly what is convenient for you, and not your fears, desires, complexes or stereotypes that the media and society have “instilled” into you. You choose on your own, and not under the pressure of some factors.

  

  Choose and remember that the world doesn't care how you look at it. However, the quality of your life will depend on how you look at the world around you.

  The world is the same for all people. Everyone perceives it through the senses. However, the picture of this world that will form in the head of an individual will depend on how he reacts to the information received and what assessment he gives.

  Types of perception

  The following types of perception are distinguished:

  1. Deliberate. A person deliberately turns his gaze to a certain object with the aim of studying it or using it in his activities.
  2. Unintentional. A person has no goal of perceiving the world around him, so his field of vision randomly includes objects and phenomena that surround him.

  Observation is a type of perception. Here a person looks at the world around him without judgment with the goal of looking at it soberly. If a person wants to understand what is really happening in the world, then you just need to observe it, not judge it, fully perceive and study it. By the way, this method of observation is used by children who do not yet evaluate, but simply look at what surrounds them and how people behave.

  According to modality, perception is:

  1. Visual – when information is perceived by the eyes and a visual image is formed.
  2. Auditory – when information is perceived by the ears.
  3. Tactile – when information is perceived tactilely.
  4. Olfactory – when information comes through the nose.
  5. Gustatory - when information enters through receptors in the mouth.

  More complex forms of perception are:

  • Perception of space is when a person understands what shape, color and size an object is, which is ensured by receiving information through several senses.
  • The perception of time has not yet been studied.
  • The perception of movement is provided by the organs of vision, which notice the change of an object in space.

  How does a person perceive surrounding information? The following factors influence this:

  1. The situation in which it is perceived. In a favorable environment, a person has a calmer and more positive attitude towards information than in an unfavorable environment.
  2. Depth of understanding. The better a person understands the essence of the situation, the easier he perceives it, and does not dramatize it.
  3. Characteristics of the phenomenon or object itself that a person perceives.
  4. Stereotypes are when a person perceives an object the way other people perceive it, who have already expressed their attitude and set the person in a certain way.
  5. Purity of information. A person understands more when information is presented directly and undistorted. If the information is distorted, then it is difficult to understand.

  Person's perception by person

  The perception of a person by a person initially occurs at the level of assessing his external data. First, a person is greeted by his clothes, appearance and state of external health. And there are several ways to perceive it:

  1. When a person is outwardly beautiful, it seems that he is always in good mood, which is a fallacy.
  2. If a person is similar to another person in some way, then he is credited with the qualities of the person he is similar to.
  3. A person is assessed at the level of individual elements of his appearance. Each look indicates that a person has a certain type of character.
  4. Evaluation of a person occurs at the social level, when his clothing and attributes are evaluated. Thus, torn pants will suggest that a person is poor, and a business suit will suggest intelligence.

  Often people do not even come into contact with each other, but based on external data they understand for themselves whether they will continue communication or not. Often, external assessment does not coincide with the attitude that arises towards a person in the process of communicating with him and getting to know him. However, there are situations when the first impression coincides with the subsequent assessment.

  Bottom line

  Perception plays an important role in a person’s life, since the assessments a person gives to the world around him determine how he relates to it, creates a certain emotional background and forms goals, which he then begins to strive for.