ENGINE TESTING
Types of tests and their purpose
Engine testing can be divided into experimental design and serial.
Development tests are divided into research and control.
Research tests are carried out to study certain properties of a particular engine and, depending on the goals, can be finishing, reliability and boundary tests.
Finishing tests serve to evaluate design solutions adopted to achieve the required values of power and economic indicators established by the terms of reference.
Reliability Tests are carried out to assess the compliance of the engine resource and its reliability indicators established by the terms of reference.
Boundary tests are carried out to assess the dependence of power and economic indicators, engine performance on the boundary conditions established by the terms of reference, as well as high and low temperatures environment, rolls and trims, height above sea level, variable loads and changing speeds, vibrations, single shocks.
Control tests are designed to assess the compliance of all indicators of an experimental engine with the requirements terms of reference. They are divided into preliminary and interdepartmental.
Preliminary control tests are carried out by the commission of the enterprise-developer with the participation of a representative of the customer to determine the possibility of presenting the engine for acceptance tests.
Interdepartmental testing are acceptance tests of prototype products conducted by a commission consisting of representatives of several interested ministries or departments. Based on the results of interdepartmental tests, the issue of the possibility and expediency of testing the engine in operating conditions is being decided.
Serial tests are the final step technological process engines and are designed to control the quality of production and compliance of their characteristics with the specifications for delivery. These tests are divided into acceptance, periodic and standard.
Acceptance tests are carried out in order to check the quality of the assembly of the engine and its individual components for the running-in of rubbing surfaces, to determine the compliance of the engine performance with the specifications for delivery.
Periodic testing are designed to control the stability of the technological process of manufacturing engines in the period between tests, to confirm the possibility of continuing their manufacture in accordance with the current regulatory, technical and technological documentation.
Type tests are carried out according to a program of periodic tests in order to evaluate the effectiveness and feasibility of changes made to the design or manufacturing technology of engines.
Testing of automobile engines is regulated by GOST 14846-81, which defines the test conditions, requirements for test benches and equipment, methods and rules for testing, the procedure for processing test results, the scope of control and acceptance tests.
Before testing, the engines must be run-in in accordance with the specifications. Tests are carried out using fuels and lubricants specified in the technical documentation for the engine, which has a passport and test reports certifying the compliance of their physico-chemical parameters with the specified ones. During testing, the temperature of the coolant and oil in the engine is maintained within the limits specified in specifications on the engine. In the absence of such instructions, the temperature of the coolant at the engine outlet should be 348-358 K, and the oil temperature should be 353-373 K.
When testing, the number of measurement points should be sufficient to reveal the shape and nature of the curve in the entire range of the modes being examined when constructing the characteristics. Engine performance is determined at steady state operation, in which torque, crankshaft speed, liquid and oil cooling temperatures change during the measurement by no more than 2%. With manual control of the stand
the duration of the fuel consumption measurement should be at least 30 s.
In accordance with GOST, when testing engines, it is necessary to measure the following parameters: torque, crankshaft speed, fuel consumption, intake air temperature, coolant temperature, oil temperature, fuel temperature, exhaust gas temperature, barometric pressure, oil pressure, exhaust gas pressure, ignition timing or start of fuel supply.
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;text-decoration:underline" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Question #4.
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Exploratory tests:
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Tests conducted to examine certain characteristics of an object's properties.
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Finishing tests:
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">research tests carried out during the development of products in order to assess the impact of changes made to it to achieve the specified values of its quality indicators.
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Bench testing:
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">object tests carried out on test equipment.
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Preliminary tests:
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">control tests of prototypes and (or) pilot batches of products, carried out in order to determine the possibility of their presentation for acceptance testing.
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Acceptance tests:
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">control tests of prototypes, pilot batches of products or products of a single production, carried out respectively in order to resolve the issue of the advisability of putting these products into production and (or) use for their intended purpose.
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Certification tests:
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">control tests of products carried out in order to establish the compliance of the characteristics of its properties with national and (or) international regulatory documents.
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Qualification tests:
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">control tests of the installation series or the first industrial batch, carried out in order to assess the readiness of the manufacturer to release products of this type in a given volume.
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Periodic testing:
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">control tests of manufactured products, carried out in the volumes and within the time limits established by the regulatory document, in order to control the stability of product quality and the possibility of continuing its production.
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Type tests:
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">control tests of manufactured products, carried out in order to assess the effectiveness and feasibility of changes made to the design, recipe or technological process.
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Controlled Operation:
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">operation of a given number of products in accordance with the current operational documentation, accompanied by additional control and taking into account the technical condition of products in order to obtain more reliable information about changes in the quality of products of this type under operating conditions.
" xml:lang="en-US" lang="en-US">Performance tests:
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">testing the object, carried out during operation.
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Note.
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Experimental sample" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN"> is a product sample that has the main features of the product planned for development, manufactured in the process of conducting research work (R&D) in order to verify the proposed solutions and clarify individual characteristics for use in the development of this product.
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Prototype" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN"> is a sample of products manufactured according to the newly developed working documentation for verification by testing or peer review for the simplest products, compliance with its specified technical requirements in order to make a decision on the possibility of putting into production and (or) use for its intended purpose.
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Experimental batch" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN"> - a set of prototypes or a certain volume of products manufactured over a specified period of time according to the newly developed one and the same documentation to control the compliance of products with specified requirements and make a decision on putting them into production.
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Installation series" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN"> is the first industrial batch manufactured during the period of mastering production according to serial or mass production documentation in order to confirm the readiness of production for the production of products with established requirements and in given volumes.
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">At all stages of product development, as well as during its operation, control is a necessary element of quality management. The essence of any control can be reduced to obtaining information about the actual state of an object, its features and indicators (primary information); comparing primary information with previously established requirements and norms, i.e. determining whether or not the actual data matches the expected ones (secondary information).
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">All methods of product quality control can be classified according to the following criteria:
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">- assignment;
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">- subordination;
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">- position in manufacturing process;
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">- parameters and quality indicators;
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">check objectivity, etc.
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">At the same time, two groups of control methods are traditionally distinguished: technical control and automated.
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Product quality control" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN"> it is customary to call the verification of compliance of product quality indicators with established requirements, which are fixed in standards, drawings, technical specifications and other documents. In product quality control, the object of control is processed, manufactured, manufactured and operated products. The corresponding parameters of these products are checked for quality.
" xml:lang="en-GB" lang="en-GB">The quality control system is designed to regulate all process deviations related to materials, equipment, service and production conditions that affect product quality.
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Each stage of the technological process must correspond to one or another form of organization of technical control.
" xml:lang="en-RU" lang="en-RU">Product Testing" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN"> one of the types of product quality control. A test is the definition of quantitative and quality characteristics properties of products during operation, when simulating operating conditions or when reproducing certain effects on products according to a given program. During testing, the product is subjected to one or more external influences, for example, vibrational, thermal, power, chemical, and the properties of interest to the researcher characterizing the quality of the product are recorded: hardness, wear resistance, corrosion resistance, etc.
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Types of product testing are classified according to test features:
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Table No. 1 Signs and types of tests
|
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Test sign |
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Test type |
|
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Purpose of testing |
" xml:lang="en-RU" lang="en-RU">Control tests Research tests Boundary tests |
|
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Availability of base for comparison |
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Comparative tests (identification) |
|
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Parameter value precision |
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Determinative tests Evaluation tests |
|
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Stages of product development |
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Finishing tests Preliminary tests Acceptance tests |
|
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Procedure level |
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Departmental tests Interdepartmental tests State tests |
|
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Process steps |
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Tests during input control Tests during operational control Acceptance tests |
|
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Quality Level Assessment |
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Certification tests |
|
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Duration |
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Accelerated tests Normal tests |
|
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Degree of intensification |
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Forced trials Reduced trials |
|
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Impact on the possibility of further use of products |
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Destructive testing Non-destructive testing |
|
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Venue |
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Field testing Operational testing |
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Objects" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">tests can be materials, parts, machine assemblies, machines and technical systems including many machines and devices. Tests of individual parts of machines are widespread, in particular, testing of gearboxes and gearboxes for durability, as well as testing of machine parts: shafts for bending, bearings for wear.
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Method" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN"> tests are a set of rules for applying certain principles of testing.
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">For many types of tests, there are standards that establish test conditions, modes, shape and size of samples, a list of registered parameters, rules that establish the sample size, the procedure for conducting tests and criteria for their termination.
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">The choice of mode is an important point in planning tests, while the test mode is understood as a combination of the following factors that determine the mechanism and intensity of destruction processes:
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">- load and voltage;
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">- speed and frequency of load positions;
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">- test conditions, temperature, interaction of individual parts, properties and amount of lubricant, content and properties of abrasive particles, etc.;
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">- state of the environment (temperature, pressure, aggressiveness).
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Choosing the test mode is especially important for accelerated testing." xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Accelerated test mode" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN"> differs significantly from the mode of normal operation of the product, however, both modes must be related both qualitatively and quantitatively.
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">The main classified attribute of product testing is the purpose of testing.
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Control tests" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN"> are carried out to control the quality of products during production, operation and storage. These tests are carried out only on natural samples. The category of control tests includes, for example, preliminary and acceptance tests. Preliminary tests of prototypes (batches) are carried out to determine the possibility of their presentation for acceptance tests.
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Exploratory tests" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN"> are necessary to study certain product properties. Such properties can be mechanical strength, wear resistance, corrosion resistance, etc. These tests can be carried out both on full-scale samples and on mock-ups. The information obtained about the properties of materials and structures is important when developing new products or modernizing them.
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">Boundary tests" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN"> belong to the category of research tests carried out to determine the relationship between the permissible values of product parameters and the values of the parameters of operating modes. Such tests are carried out in order to assess the tensile strength, permissible loads, speeds, power, etc.
" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">A special place among the varieties of research tests is occupied by" xml:lang="en-US" lang="en-US">operational testing finished products " xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">. This is due to the fact that no matter how carefully the tests are planned, in laboratory conditions it is almost impossible to reproduce the whole variety of factors that determine external influences, conditions and modes encountered in real operating conditions. For the developer and manufacturer" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">the information obtained during the tests allows us to judge the correct functioning, reliability and other indicators of product quality." xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">
;display:none" xml:lang="en-EN" lang="en-EN">End form
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Research tests are used to study the physics and mechanism of changes in the functional states of elements and their systems in order to develop methods to improve their reliability. Exploratory testing can be divided into destructive and non-destructive. In destructive testing, the load is increased until the object under test fails. After that, by disassembling, the cause of the failure is established and strengthened. weak spots. An increase in the load safety factor provides an increase in the reliability of the tested objects. An increase in the load (rigidity of the test modes) during destructive tests can occur not until the object fails, but only to the limit state. After a certain exposure in the limiting modes, the object is disassembled and examined in order to detect changes that subsequently lead to the appearance of failures.
Non-destructive testing methods are of great importance in research testing for investigating the reliability of machines and devices. The main methods of non-destructive testing include:
- Acoustic emission method, which consists in the study of acoustic vibrations that occur in solids during plastic deformation or fracture.
- Method of ultrasonic spectroscopy, based on the study of the properties of controlled objects and the parameters of defects by changing the spectral composition.
- Methods based on the visualization of ultrasound images, which use ultrasonic control systems with photographic, thermal, optical and other methods of visualization of violations of the integrity of the structure of the object under study.
- Methods based on the reflection of ultrasonic waves, which examine the state of the surface by the reflection coefficient of longitudinal elastic waves incident from the liquid onto the surface of the controlled part.
- Methods of ultrasonic holography using methods of ultrasonic flaw detection, as well as electronic scanning of the ultrasonic hologram field.
- Methods of optical holography and coherent optics, using the analysis of the pattern of glare of laser radiation in the control of mechanical, thermal and vibrational loads.
- Methods based on the visualization of X-ray and gamma radiation, which are used in the control of thick-walled parts and welds using television installations, photography or video recording.
- Neutron radiography methods based on the registration of the image resulting from different attenuation of the neutron flux by individual sections of the controlled object.
- Methods based on wave processes used to detect defect sites (cavities, cracks), when and as wave processes, the propagation of ultrasonic and electromagnetic waves in a medium without attenuation is used.
- Radio engineering microwave methods of control, using the interaction of the microwave range with the material under study.
- Methods thermal radiation based on the study of infrared radiation of the object under study.
Research tests are tests that check the quality of functioning of the tested object of the accepted circuit design and establish the optimal ratio of all input parameters.
Research tests include:
Laboratory tests to establish the operability of the object with the selected values of the input parameters;
Laboratory tests to establish the limit values of circuit design parameters at the limit values of external influences;
Boundary tests;
Step tests, etc.
27. LABORATORY TESTS
Laboratory tests are carried out in order to determine the operability and establish compliance of the design of machines and devices with the requirements of the TOR. Laboratory tests usually begin with checking the correct installation and connection of functional units.
Checking the performance of machines and devices as a whole is carried out first under normal conditions. In case of non-compliance of any parameter of the machine or device with the requirements of the TOR, the characteristics of the circuit or structural elements are adjusted. The changes made are recorded in a special log in the form established by the regulatory documentation.
After establishing the operability of machines and devices under normal conditions, tests continue under more severe operating conditions. Test modes, their duration are set in accordance with the requirements of the TOR or TS.
In addition to normal operating conditions, in the process of laboratory testing, the performance of machines and devices can also be checked under extreme conditions. In this case, the test objects are exposed to the limit values of mechanical and climatic influences that may be in the operating conditions.
The failures revealed in the process of testing are analyzed and measures are developed to improve circuit and design solutions that ensure an increase in the reliability of machines and devices.
28. BOUNDARY TESTS
Boundary tests are called tests that allow you to experimentally determine the boundaries of stable operation of elements, assemblies, blocks, devices, machines when changing input parameters and external influences.
Boundary testing allows:
1) establish the optimal mode of operation of elements, nodes, blocks, etc., as well as evaluate the boundaries of possible tolerances of input parameters;
2) check the compliance of the parameters of functional transducers with the requirements of technical specifications at the limit values of external influences, the parameters of the elements and parts used, power sources, the limit values of the measured value (for devices) and the parameters of the output load;
3) to ensure the most stable functioning of machines and devices in the real conditions of their manufacture and operation.
Boundary testing consists of the following main steps:
a) preliminary analysis of the operation of the test object and preparation of a test program;
b) experimental implementation and plotting of graphs of boundary
tests;
c) analysis of boundary tests and development
proposals for improving the sustainability of functioning
tested object;
d) implementation of the developed proposals and verification of their effectiveness.
There are two main types of boundary tests:
1) boundary testing of devices in the process of their design;
2) boundary tests of devices during their operation. There are several practical ways to perform boundary testing.
Analytical method
For simple circuits with a simple mathematical description, the boundaries of the region of no-failure operation can be determined by calculation using equations of the type:
where y imin =const, y imax =const - boundary values of output parameters, х1…x n - input parameters. This is possible, for example, for passive linear quadripoles.
Graphical way
For complex circuits, the operation of which cannot be satisfactorily described mathematically, the analytical method is not applicable. The boundaries of the region of failure-free operation of such circuits can be determined experimentally.
If the number of input parameters is n>3 (and in complex circuits it is always n>3), then it is no longer possible to imagine the configuration of the fail-safe operation area. You can get some idea about it if you consider the projections of the sections of the area of non-failure operation by planes parallel to the coordinate planes.
In practice, the implementation of boundary tests is reduced to obtaining such projections. On the abscissa axis, the relative change in the supply voltage, t ° of the environment, etc. is plotted. from the nominal value Hv. On the y-axis - the relative change in the studied parameter Xa. Based on the research results, graphs of boundary tests are constructed, which are a combination of relative changes in the parameters under study, leading to the failure of the tested object. All graphs are superimposed on one figure. If the output parameters of the tested object are in the middle part of the formed area of stable operation and have a sufficient margin of stability, it is considered that the inherent circuit and design parameters provide sufficient reliability of the tested object. In the case when the required value of the output parameters of a machine or device does not have a sufficient stability margin (according to the formed stability zone), it is necessary to correct the nominal value of the corresponding parameter under study.
28.3. Graph-analytical method
It makes it possible to significantly reduce the complexity of boundary tests and speed up their implementation.
This requires a mathematical description of the object under study:
y=F(x 1 ,x 2 ,...,x n), where x 1 ...x n are input parameters. Output parameter values will be within:
Y min ≤ Y ≤ Y max
We expand the function F in a Taylor series in the vicinity of the nominal operating point H and restrict ourselves to first-order terms, then we can write:
y=y n +( F/ x 1) n 𝛥x 1 + F/ x 2) n 𝛥x 2 +…+ F/ x n)𝛥x n or
where 𝛥x - increments of input parameters;
y n - nominal value of the i-th output parameter.
The previously written inequality can now be written:
The conditions for functional stability can be written in following form:
Obviously, if these inequalities are satisfied, then it can be argued that the work area does not go beyond the fail-safe operation area. If the inequalities are not satisfied, then the circuit under study is unreliable. In this case, reliability can be improved by:
a) by reducing the tolerances on the parameters of the elements;
b) changing the nominal values of individual parameters,
increasing the zone of functional stability.
These measures ensure the fulfillment of inequalities with an even greater margin.
The experimental part of the method is reduced to finding partial derivatives. The partial derivatives are replaced by ratios of the increments of the output parameter at the final increment of each input parameter. The influence of each parameter on the value of the output parameter is investigated at the nominal value of the remaining parameters.
An important advantage of this method is that the researcher has the opportunity to see the whole picture as a whole. Indeed, each member of the series determines that partial change in the output parameter, which is caused by a change in the corresponding input parameter. You can immediately evaluate specific gravity influence of this input parameter. It opens up the possibility of a reasonable choice of tolerances for the deviation of those input parameters that depend on the will of the developer.
29. Operating conditions and their impact on reliability indicators.
29.1. Climatic zones and factors affecting reliability.
Depending on the functional purpose, products are used in certain operating conditions: operating modes, climatic and production conditions (temperature, humidity, radiation, etc.).
Depending on climate change and working conditions A number of climatic zones can be distinguished:
1) Arctic;
2) Moderate, subdivided into humid moderate and dry moderate;
3) Tropical, subdivided into humid tropical (jungles, sea coasts, islands) and dry tropical zone (deserts).
1. The Arctic and polar zones include: the Arctic and Antarctica, Siberia, Alaska, Northern Canada, northeastern Europe. The temperature in winter reaches -40°С and even -55°…-70°С, in summer the temperature reaches +30°С, and sometimes even up to +35°С. Daily temperature changes t° - up to 20°C. The best t° of the sea is 0°С. The absolute humidity is low, but due to low temperatures the relative humidity is often high.
2. Temperate climate zones are located between latitudes from 40° to 65°. The conditions in this zone are gradually moving, on the one hand, to the conditions of the Arctic zone, and on the other hand, to the conditions of the subtropical zone. Areas remote from the seas and oceans are characterized by great variability in temperature values, relatively high in summer and low in winter. Areas lying near the seas and oceans are characterized by less abrupt changes in temperature during the year and increased humidity. This increases the corrosion of materials. Corrosion of materials is especially high in industrial areas that pollute the air and water with aggressive impurities.
3. Tropical dry zones (desert zones) include North and Central Africa, Arabia, Iran, Central Asia and Central Austria. The zones are characterized by the presence of high temperature and its large daily changes, as well as low values of relative humidity. The maximum daytime temperatures reach 60°C, the minimum nighttime temperatures reach -10°C. Quite normal phenomena are diurnal changes at 40°C. Due to the absorption of intense solar radiation, the temperature of the instrumentation machine on the surface of the earth can reach 70° ... 75°С. The maximum relative humidity at night reaches z=10%, the minimum z=5…3%. Due to the low moisture content in the atmosphere, the scattering and absorption of the ultraviolet component in solar radiation is small. The presence of ultraviolet radiation causes the activation of a number of photochemical processes on the surface of the product. Characteristic is the presence of moving streams of dust and sand, arising under the influence of winds or created by transport. Dust particles are usually 0.05-0.02 mm in size, have an angular shape and have abrasive properties. The sand consists mainly of quartz grains with an average diameter of approximately 0.4 mm.
Tropical humid zones are located near the equator between 23° north and 23° south latitude. They are characterized by constant high t° with small diurnal variations and high values of relative humidity. During a significant part of the year, abundant precipitation falls. Daytime t° up to 40°C, nighttime temperatures rarely below 25°C, during rainy periods t° can drop to 20°C. Relative humidity during the day z=70-80%, and at night it rises to z=90% and higher; often at night the air is saturated with water vapor, i.e. z=100%.
The tropical humid zone includes West, Central and East Africa, Central America, South Asia, Indonesia, the Philippines and the archipelagos of the islands in the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Characteristic of the coastal regions and islands of this zone is the presence of a high salt content in the atmosphere, which, in the presence of high relative humidity and high temperature, creates conditions for intense corrosion of metals.
In connection with the development of aviation and rocket technology, the conditions in the upper layers of the atmosphere are of significant interest. For the zone closest to the earth's surface (0-12 km) - the troposphere - a temperature drop of approximately 6.5 ° C per each kilometer of altitude is characteristic, and the relative humidity decreases to z = 5 ... 2% at the upper boundary of the troposphere. In the next zone (12-80 km) - the stratosphere - t ° in the area of 12 ... 25 km altitude reaches -56.5 ° C, and then begins to grow. In the stratosphere there are layers of ozone, which have a maximum concentration at a height of 16-25 km. There are winds and currents in the troposphere and stratosphere. Wind strength increases with altitude in the troposphere and then decreases in the stratosphere. Winds and air currents are westward. The most powerful currents (up to 120 m/s and more) lie near the lower layer of the stratosphere.
In the zone lying above 80 km - the ionosphere - t ° begins to increase again. At an altitude of 82 km there is the so-called layer E, at an altitude of 150 km - layer F of the ionosphere, which play an important role in the propagation of short and ultrashort radio waves. In the ionosphere, most of the gases are in the atomic state. The last zone, the exosphere, is an almost perfect vacuum.
So, as follows from the analysis of climatic zones, the category climatic factors influence of t°, humidity and solar radiation belongs.
We have found that the temperature of the air near the earth's surface can vary from -70° to +60°C. If the equipment is not protected from direct exposure to sunlight, then the temperature of a solid body at the Earth's surface can exceed the ambient air temperature by 25°...35°C. t ° inside the protected casing due to heat generation by operating devices can rise to 150 ° C and above. Thus, the temperature range at which the equipment operates is quite significant. Consider typical examples of influence:
White modification of tin, turning into gray, at = 13°С. At =-50°C sharply increases the process of destruction of tin. Under the influence, the geometric dimensions of the parts change, which can lead to gaps and jamming.
The electrical and magnetic properties of materials also change. The temperature coefficient of resistance of copper is 0.4% per 1°C. The resistance value of non-wire resistors changes when changing from -60°С to +60°С by 15…20%. Steel with an admixture of 6% tungsten loses up to 10% of magnetic energy when the temperature changes from 0° to 100°C. The capacitance of the capacitor changes significantly with temperature changes (up to 20 ... 30%). When the environment changes from -60° to +60°С, the parameters of semiconductor devices change by 10…25%. There is a limit value at which semiconductor devices can operate, for example, for germanium diodes and transistors, the maximum allowable is 70 ° ... 100 ° С, for silicon - 120 ° ... 150 ° С.
Humidity also affects performance. Water vapor is always present in the air surrounding the equipment. Relative humidity is under normal conditions 50 ... 70%, the average value of relative humidity ranges from 5% (in the desert zone) to 95% (in the tropical zone). Moisture changes the mechanical and electrical properties of materials. The penetration of moisture into the pores of the dielectric increases the dielectric constant, which leads to a change in the capacitance of the capacitors. Humidity reduces surface resistance, insulation resistance, dielectric strength, reduces the capacitive coupling between wires, has a significant impact on the performance of semiconductor devices, and causes corrosion of all metal parts.
A significant factor for the deterioration of equipment performance is the presence of ultraviolet radiation and, finally, high relative humidity and heat contribute rapid development bacteria and microorganisms that cause damage to organic, and in some cases, metal parts of equipment (wire insulation, insulating parts of the structure, paints, varnishes and other coatings).
A number of climatic versions (classes of versions) of products have been established according to the conditions of their operation in macroclimatic regions (GOST 15150-69). For example: Y (N) - for areas with a temperate climate; UHL (NF) - with a temperate and cold climate; when operating only in a cold climate - HL (F), etc.. A total of 11 climatic modifications are installed. Depending on the location of the product during operation in the air (at an altitude of up to 4300 m above sea level, as well as in underground and underwater rooms), a number of placement categories are established:
1- Outdoors;
2- Under a canopy or in open spaces;
3- In enclosed spaces (not heated);
4- In closed heated rooms;
5- In rooms with high humidity (mines, basements, workshops, etc.).
The standard establishes norms for temperature, humidity and other operational parameters for a given type of operating conditions (class and category). For example, for UHL 4 products, operating temperatures are from +1° to +36°, average operating temperature is +20°С, limiting temperatures are +1°С; +50°С. Limit relative humidity 80%.
Similar information.
1 . GENERAL PROVISIONS
1.1. Research tests occupy an important place among the types of tests that PR should be subjected to at various stages of their creation and operation. During the research tests, the following tasks are solved:
1. Research and assessment of the values of the main functional characteristics and parameters of the PR.
2. Identification of defects in the design of mechanisms, drives, control systems and finding ways to improve them
4. Study of areas of operable states and determination of signs of defective states of various elements and systems of PR.
2. Reduced dynamic tests.
3. Extended dynamic tests.
4. Tests for reliability.
1.2.1. The main purpose of static tests is to determine the rigidity of test bodies and carrier systems, backlashes and gaps in transmission mechanisms and supports.
1.2.2. The main purpose of dynamic tests is to determine the PR parameters that characterize their dynamic properties. These tests are the most time-consuming and involve the determination of the largest number of characteristics and parameters (Tables 1 and 2). Studies of the characteristics and parameters of the PR can be carried out when the actuators sequentially perform the components of the cycle or simultaneously perform several movements in the most common combinations. The choice of these combinations is carried out depending on the features of the work and design of the tested robots.
According to the number of studies and their complexity, dynamic tests are divided into reduced and extended ones.
With reduced dynamic tests, the main characteristics and parameters of robots are determined with the sequential execution of the elementary components of the cycle, which makes these tests universal and allows them to be carried out according to a single methodology, regardless of location.
Table 1
|
Characteristics of PR |
Test types |
|
|
Abbreviated |
Extended |
|
|
load capacity |
||
|
Performance |
||
|
speed |
||
|
Service zone |
||
|
Positioning error |
||
|
(error of reproduction of a given trajectory) |
||
|
Load on parts of mechanisms and drive |
||
|
Reproducibility of a given law of motion |
||
|
Rigidity of actuators and support systems |
||
|
Vibration characteristics and noise levels |
||
|
Temperature fields and deformations |
||
|
Total consumption of energy, compressed air, coolant and operating fluids |
||
|
Resource and other indicators of reliability |
||
table 2
|
Defined parameters |
Measured quantities |
Unit |
Test types |
|
|
Abbreviated |
Extended |
|||
|
Maximum working body speed |
Speed |
m/s (rad/s) |
||
|
Average working body speed: |
||||
|
a) without taking into account fluctuations |
The path (angle) of movement, the time of movement without taking into account fluctuations. |
m/s (rad/s) |
||
|
b) subject to fluctuations |
Path (angle) of movement small displacement; travel time with fluctuations |
m/s (rad/s) |
||
|
The maximum value of the acceleration of the working body |
Acceleration |
|||
|
Time parameters |
||||
|
Vibration parameters of the working body |
Small movements; frequency |
|||
|
Forces (moments) acting on links |
Force (moment) |
|||
|
Pressure in the cavities of pneumohydraulic motors |
Pressure |
|||
|
Temperature of robot parts, hydraulic oil, drive, etc. |
Temperature |
|||
|
Power consumed by electric motors |
Power |
|||
|
Consumption of the working fluid and coolant |
||||
|
Vibration parameters of executive bodies, housing, drive and support system |
Vibration acceleration, vibration velocities of vibration displacement |
m/s 2 (rad/s 2) m/s (rad/s) |
||
|
Noise level at given points in the laboratory room |
||||
|
Current or voltage in power circuits and control system circuits |
Current, voltage |
|||
|
The maximum working movement of the gripper by coordinates |
Stroke (angle) |
|||
|
Capture deflection amount: |
||||
|
a) from a given position |
Small movements |
|||
|
b) from a given trajectory |
Small movements |
|||
|
Displacement of executive bodies and support systems under the action of applied forces |
Small movements |
|||
In the course of extended dynamic tests, in addition to the main ones, a number of additional characteristics and parameters are determined that allow a more detailed assessment of the operation of an industrial robot. Due to the increased complexity, extended dynamic tests are usually carried out in laboratory conditions.
2 . STATIC TEST PROCEDURE
For typical PR kinematic schemes operating in Cartesian, cylindrical, spherical and angular coordinate systems, in Table. 3a, b shows the positions of the hands in which it is necessary to determine the stiffness. The directions in which measurements are made are also indicated there.
2.2.1. When measuring stiffness in the vertical plane, the arm can be loaded by means of a load attached to the grip (for example, with a cable) or clamped directly into the grip. To determine the stiffness in the horizontal plane, the cable is additionally thrown over the block, the axis of which is perpendicular to the direction of stiffness measurement.
Table 3a
|
Coordinate system |
Kinematic scheme |
Research coordinates. movements |
The value of the variable parameters in % of the maximum |
Test types |
||||||
|
hand speed |
load capacity |
|||||||||
|
Cartesian |
|
Static |
||||||||
|
(0; 0.5; 1.0) Y max |
(0; 0.5; 1.0) Zmax |
|||||||||
|
(0; 0.5; 1.0) Y max |
(0; 0.5; 1.0) Zmax |
dynamic |
||||||||
|
20; 40; 60; 80; 100 |
0; 25; 50; 75; 100 |
(0; 0.25; 0.50; 0.75; 1.0) Ymax |
||||||||
|
Static |
||||||||||
|
(0; 0.5; 1.0) X max |
(0; 0.5; 1.0) Zmax |
|||||||||
|
(0; 0.5; 1.0) X max |
(0; 0.5; 1.0) Zmax |
dynamic |
||||||||
|
20; 40; 60; 80; 100 |
0; 25; 50; 75; 100 |
(0; 0.25; 0.5; 0.75; 1.0) Zmax |
||||||||
|
Static |
||||||||||
|
(0; 0.5; 1.0) X max |
(0; 0.5; 1.0) Y max |
|||||||||
|
(0; 0.5; 1.0) X max |
(0; 0.5; 1.0) Y max |
dynamic |
||||||||
|
20; 40; 60; 80; 100 |
0; 25; 50; 75; 100 |
(0; 0.25; 0.50; 0.75; 1.0) X max |
(0; 0.25; 0.5; 0.75; 1.0) Ymax |
|||||||
|
Cylindrical |
|
Static |
||||||||
|
(0; 0.5; 1.0) Zmax |
(0; 0.5; 1.0) jmax |
|||||||||
|
(0; 0.5; 1.0) Zmax |
(0; 0.5; 1.0) jmax |
dynamic |
||||||||
|
20; 40; 60; 80; 100 |
0; 25; 50; 75; 100 |
(0; 0.25; 0.5; 0.75; 1.0) Zmax |
||||||||
|
Static |
||||||||||
|
(0; 0.5; 1.0) X max |
(0; 0.5; 1.0) jmax |
|||||||||
|
(0; 0.5; 1.0) X max |
(0; 0.5; 1.0) jmax |
dynamic |
||||||||
|
20; 40; 60; 80; 100 |
0; 25; 50; 75; 100 |
(0; 0.25; 0.5; 1.0) X max |
(0; 0.25; 0.5; 0.75; 1.0) jmax |
|||||||
|
Static |
||||||||||
|
(0; 0.5; 1.0) X max |
(0; 0.5; 1.0) Zmax |
|||||||||
|
20; 40; 60; 80; 100 |
0; 0,25; 50; 75; 100 |
(0; 0.5; 1.0) X max (0; 0.25; 0.5; 0.75; 1.0) X max |
(0; 0.5; 1.0) Zmax (0; 0.25; 0.5; 0.75; 1.0) Zmax |
dynamic |
||||||
Table 3b
|
Coordinate system |
Kinematic scheme |
Last coordinates movements |
Variable parameter values in % of maximum |
The position of the hand in coordinates in fractions of the maximum displacement |
Test types |
|||||
|
hand speed |
load capacity |
|||||||||
|
spherical |
|
Static |
||||||||
|
(0; 0.5; 1.0) jmax |
(0; 0.5; 1.0) ? 1max |
|||||||||
|
(0; 0.5; 1.0) jmax |
(0; 0.5; 1.0) ? 1max |
dynamic |
||||||||
|
20; 40; 60; 80; 100 |
0; 25; 50; 75; 100 |
(0; 0.25; 0.5; 0.75; 1.0) jmax |
||||||||
|
Static |
||||||||||
|
(0; 0.5; 1.0) Xmax |
(0; 0.5; 1.0) ? 1max |
|||||||||
|
(0; 0.5; 1.0) Xmax |
(0; 0.5; 1.0) ? 1max |
dynamic |
||||||||
|
20; 40; 60; 80; 100 |
0; 25; 50; 75; 100 |
(0; 0.25; 0.5; 0.75; 1.0) ? 1max |
||||||||
|
Static |
||||||||||
|
(0; 0.5; 1.0) Xmax |
(0; 0.5; 1.0) jmax |
|||||||||
|
(0; 0.5; 1.0) Xmax |
(0; 0.5; 1.0) jmax |
dynamic |
||||||||
|
20; 40; 60; 80; 100 |
0; 25; 50; 75; 100 |
(0; 0.25; 0.5; 0.75; 1.0) X max |
(0; 0.25; 0.5; 0.75; 1.0) jmax |
|||||||
|
|
Static |
|||||||||
|
(0; 0.5; 1.0) ? 1max |
(0; 0.5; 1.0) ? 2max |
|||||||||
|
(0; 0.5; 1.0) ? 1max |
(0; 0.5; 1.0) ? 2max |
dynamic |
||||||||
|
20; 40; 60; 80; 100 |
0; 25; 50; 75; 100 |
(0; 0.25; 0.5; 0.75; 1.0) ? 1max |
||||||||
|
Static |
||||||||||
|
(0; 0.5; 1.0) jmax |
(0; 0.5; 1.0) ? 2max |
|||||||||
|
(0; 0.5; 1.0) jmax |
(0; 0.5; 1.0) ? 2max |
dynamic |
||||||||
|
20; 40; 60; 80; 100 |
0; 25; 50; 75; 100 |
(0; 0.25; 0.5; 0.75; 1.0) jmax |
(0; 0.25; 0.5; 0.75; 1.0) ? 2max |
|||||||
|
Static |
||||||||||
|
(0; 0.5; 1.0) jmax |
(0; 0.5; 1.0) ? 1max |
|||||||||
|
0; 0.5; 1.0) jmax |
(0; 0.5; 1.0) ? 1max |
dynamically |
||||||||
|
20; 40; 60; 80; 100 |
0; 25; 50; 75; 100 |
(0; 0.25; 0.5; 0.75; 1.0) jmax |
(0; 0.25; 0.5; 0.75; 1.0) ? 1max |
|||||||
Note: the numerical data given in the upper rows of tables 3a and 3b are the values of the parameters for reduced tests, in the lower rows - for extended tests.
2.2.2. The loading force is changed stepwise from zero to the maximum value and back to zero. The values of the loading force are recommended to be taken equal to 25; 50; 75; 100% of the maximum load capacity of the PR. When measuring, it is necessary to eliminate the effect of gaps. To do this, the loading force must increase to a value at which a linear relationship between it and the measured deviation is achieved.
To measure deformations, dial gauges or inductive displacement sensors can be used.
2.2.3. To reduce the values of random errors, measurements are made at least three times for each direction of the loading force.
2.2.1. The results are presented in the form of graphs of the dependences of deformations on the acting force for each direction of the force. Static stiffnesses are defined as the ratio of the loading force to the corresponding deformation in sections of the graphs in which the effects of gaps are excluded. From the graphs of the dependences of deformations on the acting force, the total gap in the drive mechanisms of the PR arm and hysteresis, reduced to capture, are also found. The gaps in the mechanisms can be determined by the deviation of the output link and by measuring the movements with a dial indicator.
2.2.5. Often there is a need to determine the displacements of individual links in the total movement of the gripper. This is done by simultaneous measurements of elastic displacements of the main links of the PR arm under the action of loading forces.
2.2.6. Loading schemes for determining the rigidity of the load-bearing and supporting systems of the PR (robot body, monorails, portals, etc.) depend on the design of the systems and are indicated in the manuals for testing specific models.
2.2.7. In a number of robots, gaps in hinged and other joints have a significant effect on the overall compliance of the output links. In these cases, it is recommended to use a special test procedure developed in.
3 . REDUCED DYNAMIC TEST PROCEDURE
3.1. The main characteristics studied during reduced tests include: carrying capacity, speed, speed, service area, positioning error or reproduction of a given trajectory, inertial loads. The first five of them are interchangeable, which is taken into account when constructing the methodology. In particular, the load capacity of the robot, which is characterized by the maximum mass of the load moved by the gripping device, depends significantly on the given positioning accuracy and speed, as well as on the outreach of the arm, i.e. geometry.
3.1.1. The load capacity is determined by measuring the mass of the load installed in the gripper at a given speed and drive power, the allowable load on the parts of the mechanisms and ensuring the required positioning accuracy. The dependence of load capacity on speed is often reflected in passport data by indicating the load capacity at normal and reduced speeds.
3.1.2. The speed of the robot, characterized by the time of movement of the working body for a given stroke, is determined by:
1) by measuring the values of speed, acceleration and small displacements at the end of the stroke;
2) by measurements of directly time intervals.
In the first case, the characteristic sections of motion, determined by measuring the velocity parameter, are refined by measuring the values of accelerations and small displacements. The speed depends not only on the speed set by the drive, but also on the magnitude and direction of movement, load capacity and damping forces. From the value of these parameters depends on the time spent on bringing to a predetermined level of fluctuations at the end of the stroke. Permissible oscillation amplitudes are determined by the requirements of the technological process (operation) performed by the robot, the conditions for capturing the moved part, etc. The permissible level of hand accelerations when gripping an object is limited in cases of moving vessels with liquid and when gripping non-rigid parts, when the resulting inertial loads can lead to damage to the clamped parts, and in other similar cases.
3.1.3. Speed is a derivative characteristic. It is calculated by the speed, taking into account the given amount of movement. When evaluating this characteristic, it is necessary to determine the permissible range of changes in the average speeds of the working body, taking into account the factors that affect it to the greatest extent. The nature of the change in the speed of movement and the oscillation of the node after the end of its movement have the most complex effect on the speed and speed of operation. Reducing the total travel time leads not only to an increase in performance, but also to a decrease in the accuracy of the robot and an increase in dynamic loads. For each design, during testing, it is necessary to find the best ratio of time components, which will prevent dynamic overloads and reduce accuracy.
3.1.4. The service area of the robot is characterized by a working volume, which is limited by the trajectory between the end points of all possible translational and rotational movements of the working body, all its stroke lengths and rotation angles for regional movements.
When experimentally determining the serviced space of the PR, the passport value of the allowable stroke length and the angle of rotation are first evaluated. all degrees of mobility. The magnitude of the strokes of the actuators provided for by the design of the robot, in some cases, cannot be fully implemented at certain ratios of load capacity and speed due to the occurrence of strong hand oscillations that prevent the performance of a given operation. If the specified positioning accuracy is not achieved at the maximum outreaches of the working body, it is necessary to determine at what outreach of the arm (turning radius) and a given load, the errors are reduced to acceptable values. In the same way, for several load values, data is obtained to calculate the actual volume of the service area.
To prevent collisions with peripheral equipment when determining the service area, it is necessary to evaluate the unused area, which depends on the design of the PR. In this case, the value of the ratio of the volume of the service area to the volume of the unused zone can serve as an indicator that characterizes the effectiveness of the tested PR design for a given process technology.
3.1.5. Positioning error is one of the main characteristics of PR, which determines their accuracy properties. Under the positioning error? D is the deviation of the actual position executive body PR X i from the programmed X prog with its multiple two-way positioning at various points along the path of movement in each of the directions of movement. The positioning error is formed by the whole complex - the mechanical part and the control system of the PR and depends on the error of the blocks and elements of the control system, drive error, hand stiffness, stiffness and dynamic properties of positioning mechanisms, damping forces and other factors. The positioning error should be determined in the general case for various positions of the working body in the service area for given ratios of load capacity and speed (taking into account the deflection of the manipulator arm), which vary depending on the values of the masses of the manipulated objects and displacements of the working body in the radial direction.
Due to the fact that when calculating the positioning error, one has to deal with random variables that change their value with each test, it is necessary to use statistical analysis methods to estimate the positioning error. At the same time, the value? D is determined by the following statistics:
a) the algebraic difference of the largest and smallest (over the entire range of displacements) arithmetic mean values of deviations of the actual positions of the working body from the programmed x prog. This indicator characterizes the accumulated deviation;
b) the value of dispersion of deviations Dх at the repeated approach of the working body to the programmed position (deviation of the working body from the given position). This indicator characterizes the standard deviation.
The accumulated deviation is the difference between the average values of the actual positions of the working body, which is formed when it approaches a given coordinate on the axis of different directions (from the right and left directions). This value allows you to determine the average deviation of the working body, which manifests itself when positioning the programmed position.
The mean square standard deviation DX characterizes the range of deviations of the coordinates of the working body from the average real coordinate that occurs when approaching the programmed specified coordinate from the right (DX pr) or left (DX l) side. This value allows you to set the range in which the actual coordinates of the working body are expected to deviate from the average actual coordinate if the specified coordinate is positioned in one direction.
With reduced tests, the positioning error is calculated for one of the points of the service area. The choice of method for determining the positioning error depends on the type of control system that the PR is equipped with. For a PR with a positional control system, the positioning error is estimated by the magnitude of the error when the gripper is brought to a given point when the cycle is repeated many times. To do this, a measuring device is installed at a given point in the working space to determine small displacements and a series of measurements is taken when the robot arm approaches the given point. When measuring, control bodies are used, which are fixed on the flange of the gripping device or in the gripping device itself. Control bodies are used that have the shape of a sphere, cube, cylinder, prism, ruler, and complex bodies that allow more accurate determination of angular displacements. The number of devices or sensors of displacement and depending on the measurement tasks varies within 1? 6. Measurements are carried out for hand movements along all programmable coordinates at several points in the working space. For subsequent static processing, it is advisable that each series of measurements include at least 10 measurements. Processing of measurement results is carried out by statistical methods on the assumption that random deviations from a given position obey the Gaussian normal distribution law. The measurements are taken in automatic mode PR work.
For a PR with a contour control system, the task of controlling accuracy is more complex and consists in the following. In the process of learning the PR, the spatial trajectory specified manually is reproduced automatically. It is required to determine the deviations of the given trajectory from the actual one? D reproduced by PR. This value is characterized by:
a) deviation of the actual average trajectory from the programmed given one (trajectory error);
b) oscillation (scatter) of the actual trajectory around the average (displacement error).
Both of these values are combined by the concept of deviation of a given trajectory from the actual one.
Methods and schemes of measuring devices for solving this problem are considered in the works. The paper proposes a method for controlling the accuracy of reproduction of a spatial curve based on the use of a special measuring head. The head, equipped with two inductive sensors of small displacements, is attached to the working body of the PR. During teaching, the measuring head moves a certain distance along the line being tested. This movement is registered by the control system. With automatic reproduction of the trajectory, a comparison is made (with the help of a computer) of the actual and programmed movements. In order to simplify the method in practice, the check is carried out by moving the head along a prismatic bar located diagonally in space. The considered method, which requires a special measuring stand, can be used, as a rule, in laboratory tests of PR.
To measure the values of the deviation of a given trajectory from the actual one, you can also use a small displacement sensor, which is installed in the working body and moves along the checked spatial trajectory.
3.1.6. For industrial robots performing technological operations (for example, welding PR), it is important to ensure and assess the stability of the movement of their actuators. Therefore, during testing, it is advisable to determine the degree and nature of the influence of various factors and parameters on the uneven movement of the actuators of the PR.
Evaluation of the non-uniformity of movement of the actuators of the PR, performing technological operations, during the period of steady motion can be carried out using the non-uniformity coefficient K v or K w . The value of the coefficient K v or K w depends on the design, rigidity, workmanship, adjustment, lubrication of the mechanism, the quality of processing and the state of the guides, which determine the nonlinearity of the friction characteristics. Therefore, provided that a sufficient amount of experimental data is obtained for their statistical processing, the coefficient K v or K w can be used as a criterion both for comparing different design options and for identifying manufacturing defects and adjusting PR mechanisms.
The non-uniformity of the movement of the actuators of the PR can also be assessed using the acceleration non-uniformity coefficient or .
To study the above characteristics, it is sufficient to register the speed, acceleration and small movements of the hand at the end of the stroke. It is advisable to register these parameters simultaneously when moving along each coordinate in both directions (up-down, forward-backward, clockwise, counterclockwise). In this case, the positioning time is associated with a given oscillation level. Tests are carried out in the automatic mode of operation of the PR.
In reduced tests, the following parameters are varied:
1. Weight m. Tests are carried out at idle (m= 0) and at values of the mass of the load m = 0.5m max ; m = m max , where m max is the maximum load capacity of the PR.
2. Values of movements for each degree of mobility;
a) for linear positioning mechanisms of the hand, intervals of 0.2L max are recommended; 0.6L max ; 1.0L max , where L max - maximum stroke;
b) for angular positioning mechanisms, intervals of 0.2? max ; 0.6? max ; 1.0? max , where? max - maximum rotation angle.
3. The speed of movement and the law of motion - for those PRs for which this is provided for by the design. At the same time, it is recommended to vary the values of the speeds of movement for each degree of mobility in the following intervals:
a) for linear positioning mechanisms from 0.5v max to 1.0v max , where v max is the maximum linear speed;
b) for angular positioning mechanisms from 0.5w max to 1.0w max , where w max is the maximum angular velocity.
To increase the reliability of the processing results, it is advisable to carry out each measurement at least three times.
3.2. Processing of test data.
3.2.1. The values of the time intervals characterizing the duration of the cycle components and the whole process as a whole can be determined by measuring the electrical signals in the control circuit (for example, in solenoids, relays, etc.), and it is most simple to find the cycle time. To measure other time intervals (for example, acceleration and deceleration times), it is necessary to obtain information about the moments when the robot's actuator passes through individual points of its travel. For this purpose, additional primary transducers are introduced into the measurement circuit, but this complicates the tests and increases their labor intensity.
3.2.2. Time intervals can also be obtained by measuring the speed v (or w) of the robot's actuator. In this case, the characteristic points of the beginning and end of individual time intervals are refined by accelerations a(or e) and small movements D at the end of the robot's actuator stroke, which are adjusted along with its speed. This defines:
1. Acceleration time t p (as usual, the time interval from the moment v \u003d 0 to the moment v \u003d 0.95v max, where v max is the maximum speed).
2. Time of steady motion t set.
3. Deceleration time t t (time interval from the end of the steady motion to the moment when v = 0).
4. The time of oscillations calming t usp. (the time interval from the end of braking until the moment when the amplitude of oscillations of the robot's actuator decreases to a predetermined value (for example, to the passport value of the positioning error).
5. Maximum linear v max and angular w max speeds
where L and? - given linear and angular displacement of the robot's actuator; L n and? n - linear and angular displacements, determined by integrating the measured speed of movement of the robot's actuator; h is the maximum ordinate of the measured speed.
6. The greatest values of acceleration during acceleration a p and braking a T.
7. Amplitude A and period T of oscillations of the working body according to measurements of the parameters of small displacements at the end of the robot's actuator.
Using the parameters determined experimentally, the following are calculated:
1. Movement time t p excluding oscillation time at the end of the stroke
2. The total time of movement T p, taking into account the time of oscillations at the end of the stroke
T p \u003d t p + t set.
3. Average linear and angular velocities without taking into account ( , ) and taking into account (v av, w av) oscillations at the end of the stroke
4. Angular acceleration for angular positioning mechanisms
where R is the radius of installation of a linear acceleration sensor.
5. Inertial loads according to the maximum masses of the driven links M or their moments of inertia j
Rir \u003d Ma p; Rit = Ma t;
World = je p; Mit = je t.
6. Oscillation frequency f by intentional values of the oscillation period T
7. Logarithmic decrement? damping of oscillations is determined by the results of measuring the amplitudes of two successive oscillations А i and А i+1
(i = 1, 2, ..., n - measurement number).
Based on the data obtained, graphs of dependencies between the main characteristics of the PR are constructed: v av = f(L); v cf = f(m) and others.
8. Values of the positioning error by measuring the values of the deviation of the working body from the specified position:
a) with a one-sided approach to the programmed position (see Fig. 1) and normal distribution of scattering can be determined by the formulas
Where 
And 
- accumulated error with the right and left approach of the working body to a given point:
And
The arithmetic mean of the actual position of the working body of the PR with a multiple one-sided, respectively, right and left approach; m is the number of measurements; X i pr, X il, X prog. - respectively valid for the right and left approach and the programmed position of the working body of the PR; DX pr \u003d bS pr; DХ l \u003d bX l - the boundaries of confidence intervals for the accepted reliability and the number of measurements m with the right and left approaches of the working body:
Standard deviations from the arithmetic mean values for both right and left approaches; b is the corresponding Student's coefficient;
b) when approaching a programmed position from two directions and with a normal scattering distribution:
Where 
- accumulated error;
And
Arithmetic mean deviations when the working body approaches the given position from the right and left sides, respectively, which take into account the discrepancy between the dispersion center and the initial position specified in the learning mode.
X ipr and X il - the results of individual measurements in a series when the working body approaches a given position, respectively, from the right and left sides;
m is the number of measurements in a series;
where, in addition to known values, T ei - the duration of the i-th stage of testing;
Ij - specific gravity of the j-th mode during the same stage;
К НУij - coefficient of resource estimation acceleration at the j-th mode at the same stage;
K i - the number of modes at i-th stage tests;
n is the number of test stages.
If several programs are implemented during RI, then KNU is determined for each program.
5.2.20. Components of life tests:
preliminary;
main;
final.
5.2.20.1. The preliminary part of the RI includes functional and design analysis.
Functional analysis is carried out by the developer and represents the definition of PR (modules, parts, blocks) for a particular functional group (see GOST 23612-79). Depending on the functional purpose of the module, part, PR unit, the performance criterion is selected and the mode and load effect are assigned, respectively, during subsequent tests.
Calculation and design analysis is carried out after functional analysis. The task of design analysis is to determine (predict) the weakest elements that can significantly affect the resource as a whole.
5.2.20.2. The main part of the RI consists of tests in NR and UR, including:
control and identification tests (KOI);
weak element testing (ISE).
KOI are carried out in order to confirm the correct choice of weak elements, as well as to determine design and technological manufacturing defects that appear in the first 1.5 - 2 months of KOI. This is facilitated by the acceleration (tightening) of RI regimes. KOI make it possible to refine the coefficients for accelerating the assessment of the resource (testing of weak elements). As a result of the KOI, the nodes that mainly affect the functioning are determined.
ISE is carried out, as a rule, by accelerated methods and subdivided according to tests:
for functioning;
wear;
for fatigue;
on the assessment of sudden and sudden-manifested failures;
for durability.
ISE for operation in order to obtain statistical data is carried out in all cases when high requirements are imposed on the PR in terms of positioning accuracy (repeatability).
5.2.21. The volume of PR samples for life tests in NR and UR is established in accordance with GOST 20699-75. The minimum sample size for both HP and SD is three PRs.
5.2.22. The procedure for preparing the PR for life tests complies with the requirements of clause 5.2 of these recommendations. For tests to assess dynamic properties, acceleration sensors (accelerometers), speed sensors, small and large linear displacements should be used, which allow fixing the instantaneous values of positions, speeds and accelerations of the manipulator arm coverage with a basic measurement error of not more than 5.5%.
5.2.23. Resource testing programs.
All RI should begin with checking the compliance of the technical characteristics and design parameters with the requirements of the specifications for this type of PR in the scope of acceptance tests (PSI) or in the amount that ensures the correct functioning of the PR under normal conditions in accordance with GOST 13216-74.
5.2.24. Components of the RI program in normal mode (NR):
Program 1. representing KOI with the impact on the PR of various factors;
Program 2. representing the ISE with the impact on the PR of various factors.
Program 1 should consist of the following test steps.
Stage 1: tests to determine the actual reliability indicators of the PR under normal conditions in accordance with GOST 13216-74 in accordance with the specifications for the PR with a total operating time = 500 h + T PSI, where T PSI is the duration of the PSI.
Stage 2: tests to determine the actual indicators of the reliability of the PR for various combinations of values of external factors affecting the PR.
5.2.25. The choice of combinations of values of the factors influencing the PR is carried out on the basis of the available a priori information about the mathematical model of the influence of these factors on the PR and its reliability indicators. It is recommended to take as actively influencing factors when testing PR under programs 1 and 2:
manipulator hand grip speed, v;
amount of movement of the arm of the manipulator, l, ?;
load capacity, m;
the number of changes in operating modes per unit of time (or the number of on and off per unit of time), n meas;
ambient temperature, T N;
supply voltage, V c ;
voltage of internal power supplies, V iBH ;
pressure? and consumption M s of the working fluid in the external and internal pneumatic and hydraulic networks.
The most actively influencing external factors should be considered:
ambient temperature;
supply voltage;
vibration loads;
pressure of the working fluid in the external pneumatic network.
The values of the factors listed above during the HP operation of the PR should correspond to the values that are realized during the operation of the PR at consumer plants. In the absence of these data, as normal modes, modes should be taken in which the speed, displacement and mass of the load in the tong are 80% of the maximum allowable (limit) values provided for by the specifications for the corresponding PR.
5.2.26. If the ambient (air) temperature and relative humidity deviate from the values specified in the specifications as normal conditions, it is necessary to take into account the influence of these factors on the state of the PR by reducing the period of their testing at the appropriate stage according to the formula
t Ract = t Rcalc. /K NU.
If the values of frequencies and amplitudes of forced vibrations (vibrations) deviate from the values of these parameters at which the PR is checked for vibration resistance in accordance with the specifications, it is necessary to introduce the appropriate correction K B (see clause 5.2.18).
5.2.27. The duration of stage 2, without taking into account the requirements of clause 5.2.25, is determined by the operating time = 3000 - 3200 hours.
With a total operating time of 3500 - 4000 hours, partial fault detection is carried out in order to determine the need for an average repair. After an average repair, running-in is carried out for 200 hours (100 hours - without a load, 100 hours - with a load of mass m ≤ 0.8m nom).
5.2.28. Program 2 should consist of the following stages of RI:
Stage 3: tests to determine the actual indicators of the reliability of the PR with various combinations of external factors affecting the PR. The duration of the stage is 1150 - 1350 hours. With a total operating time of 5000 - 6000 hours, partial fault detection is carried out in order to determine the need for a major (medium) repair.
Stage 4: tests to determine the actual indicators of the reliability of the PR for various combinations of values of external factors affecting the PR. Test modes are similar to the modes of the 2nd and 3rd stages. Stage duration \u003d 4500 - 5000 hours. If after the 3rd stage a major or medium repair was carried out, at the beginning of the stage within 200 hours, wire 5.2.29. It is allowed to test weak elements identified in the process of 1 - 3 stages not as part of the PR, but autonomously. In the latter case, step 4 is not carried out. In Appendix 4, for example, the schedule of life tests in HP PR "Universal-5.02" is presented.
5.2.30. Components of the PR test program in the accelerated mode (UR):
Program 1: accelerated KOI with forcing the impact of various factors on the PR.
Program 2: accelerated ISE with forcing the impact of various factors on the PR.
5.2.30.1. Program 1 includes the following steps:
Stage 1: determination of the actual indicators of reliability in HP in accordance with the specifications for the PR. Resource estimation acceleration coefficient = 1, total operating time = 350 h + T PSI, where T PSI - duration of PSI (usually T PSI? 200 - 300 h).
Stage 2: determination of actual reliability indicators for various most unfavorable combinations of forced values of external factors. The test mode is accelerated, for 50% of the total test time K NU2.1 ? 3.15.
For 50% of the total (other) test time K NU2.2 ? 4.2. In the latter case, the tests are carried out with the sequential implementation of modes 1 - 12. The total duration of each of the modes 1 - 3 and 5 - 10, 12 - 40 - 50 hours, modes 4, 11 - 80 - 100 hours. The total duration of the stage = 1000 - 1200 hours.
mode 1: ?Т Н = +1, ?U c = +1, ?f B = ?A B = 0, ?? = 0;
mode 2: ?Т Н = +1, ?U c = -1, ?f B = ?A B = 0, ?? = 0;
mode 3: ?Т Н = -1, ?U c = +1, ?f B = ?A B = 0, ?? = 0;
mode 4: ?Т Н = -1, ?U c = -1, ?f B = ?A B = 0, ?? = 0;
mode 5: ?Т Н = 0, ?U c = 0, ?f B = ?A B = +1, ?? = 0;
mode 6: ?Т Н = -1, ?U c = 0, ?f B = ?A B = +1, ?? = 0;
mode 7: ?Т Н = +1, ?U c = 0, ?f B = ?A B = +1, ?? = 0;
mode 8: ?Т Н = 0, ?U c = +1, ?f B = ?A B = +1, ?? = 0;
mode 9: ?Т Н = 0, ?U c = -1, ?f B = ?A B = +1, ?? = 0;
mode 10: ?Т Н = 0, ?U c = +1, ?f B = ?A B = 0, ?? = +1;
mode 11: ?Т Н = 0, ?U c = -1, ?f B = ?A B = 0, ?? = -1;
mode 12: ?Т Н = 0, ?U c = +1, ?f B = ?A B = +1, ?? = +1.
Here: ?Т Н, ?U c , ?f B , ?A B , ?? - relative deviations (values) of the relevant parameters. If the relative deviation is +1, then there is the upper maximum allowable value of the influencing factor according to the specifications; if the relative deviation is equal to -1, there is the minimum acceptable value of the influencing factor according to the specifications.
The formula for calculating the average value of the resource assessment acceleration factor (acceleration of operating modes) is given in clause 5.2.19.
5.2.30.2. Program 2 shall consist of the following test steps:
Stage 3: tests in SD with various combinations of the maximum (minimum) permissible values of external factors according to specifications. For 50% of the total test time ? 4.2. In this case, modes 1 - 12 are implemented. The total duration of each of the modes 1 - 3, 5 - 10 and 12 - 40 - 60 hours, modes 4 and 11 - 60 - 120 hours. The lower limit of the duration of the stage = 400 hours, the upper limit = 500 hours. 3.15.
Stage 4: tests in SD at values of influencing external factors exceeding those allowed by technical specifications. For 50% of the total test time K NU4.2 ? 7.25. In this case, modes 1 - 12 are implemented. The total duration of each of the modes 1 - 3, 5 - 10 and 12 - 30 - 50 hours, modes 4 and 11 - 70 - 100 hours. The lower limit of the stage duration = 300 hours, the upper limit = 400 hours. 3.15. When implementing modes 1 - 12, the values of the influencing factors must be 20% higher than indicated in the specifications.
Stage 5: tests in UR to the limit state (up to destruction) with the most unfavorable combinations of external factors that exceed the maximum allowable according to specifications by 2 times. Stage duration = 300 - 400 hours. For 50% of the total test time K NU5.1 ? 3.15. For the rest of the test time at this stage K NU5,2 ? 33.5. At the same time, modes 1 - 12 are implemented. The total duration of each of the modes 1 - 3, 5 - 10 and 12 is not more than 50 hours, modes 4 and 11 are not more than 100 hours. For modes 1 - 12, the values of the influencing external factors must exceed the requirements of TS by 100%.
5.2.31. Methodology for carrying out resource tests.
5.2.31.1. The sequence of the RI:
conformity check specifications and design parameters of the PR to the requirements of TS in the scope of the PSI or the volume that ensures the verification of the correct functioning of the PR under normal conditions in accordance with GOST 13216-74;
conducting CI under program 1;
carrying out ISE according to program 2. It is allowed, in agreement with the developer, to carry out ISE according to program 2, excluding the tested weak elements from the composition of the entire product.
5.2.31.2. RI during the day, as a rule, are carried out in 2 shifts with a total duration of 16 hours. It is allowed to conduct RI during the day in three shifts with a mandatory break after 16 hours of testing for at least one hour. The duration of continuous operation in modes 1 - 12 at stages 2 - 5 in UR is not less than 6 hours and not more than 8 hours.
5.2.31.3. RS are carried out with the restoration of the operability of failed PR (modules, parts, blocks). It is allowed to replace the program control device with a subsequent increase in the test period.
For reliability tests, the risk of the manufacturer, the risk of the consumer and the ratio of the acceptance and rejection levels of the time between failures in accordance with the specifications for a specific PR (module, part, unit) should be taken.
5.2.31.4. Compliance or non-compliance of the number of failures per 1000 hours of operation (time between failures) should be determined in accordance with GOST 17331-71 and specifications for a specific PR model (module, part, block).
5.2.31.5. Checking the accuracy (repeatability) of positioning in the process of RI is carried out every 100 - 150 hours of testing with a duration of at least 6 hours for NR and UR.
5.2.31.6. Maintainability tests are carried out in accordance with GOST 20699-75 with the following initial data: acceptance value of the average recovery time = 4 hours, rejection value of the average recovery time 8 hours.
5.2.31.7. Methodology for conducting KOI:
identification of weak elements in the process of development, as well as the determination of design and technological manufacturing defects;
determination of the number of failures per 1000 hours of operation (time between failures);
data collection to determine the average recovery time (probability of recovery in a given time);
data collection to determine the average resource (probability of non-limiting state);
collection of data to evaluate the laws of distribution of indicators of reliability, maintainability, durability;
data collection to assess the dynamic properties of the PR;
data collection to assess the compliance of the PR with passport characteristics (according to specifications);
collection of data to assess the stability of the tested PR;
collection of data to assess the testability and diagnosability of the PR;
collection of data on the assessment of vibration strength and vibration resistance of PR.
5.2.31.8. The ISE PR methodology is similar.
5.2.31.9. The technique of ISE PR, in which the positioning error (OP) or free play (backlash, CX) is taken as a performance criterion, is as follows.
Formally, the process of changing the OP or SH over time is considered as some random process that is stationary, that is, all tested PRs are considered homogeneous in their qualities, and their properties are practically unchanged until the value of OP (SH) reaches limit value. Based on this, OD (SH) is described by the equation
a(t) = a 0 b t + x 0 (t),
where a 0 is the initial value of OP (SH);
b - coefficient taking into account the operating mode and wear-resistant properties of the material of parts of weak elements;
x 0 (t) - a random function of time about mathematical expectation = 0.
In the first approximation, if we replace the above expression with a piecewise linear function, for each section we obtain the dependence
a(Dt i) = ? i Dt i ,
Where 
- rate of change of OD (OH), mm/h.
The presence of expressions describing the change in OD (OC) makes it possible to obtain quite plausible a(t) curves for both LR and UR. In the general case, it is enough to get a few (at least two, preferably three) points, and then extrapolate by determining a 0 and b by the least squares method or (? i) cf.
5.2.31.10. The method for calculating the time between failures of the PR by changing the value of OP (CX), when the values of the coefficients a 0 and b (or? i) are subject to random fluctuations, which are associated both with random values of the loads acting during operation, and with the random nature of the changes occurring in the materials and mating parts of the PR, provides for the following sequence:
Time between parametric failures for each j-th series of tests for positioning accuracy (repeatability) of each i-th PR
where, in addition to known values, a PR is the limiting value of OP (CX) according to specifications.
MTBF
Where l- number of test series for positioning accuracy (repeatability).
Dispersion, standard deviation and coefficient of variation, respectively, are:
long (more than 2 s) downtime at positioning points not provided for by the program;
violations of the program: failure to pass commands to the manipulator, leaving the positioning points (the shaft (pin) of the load does not fall into the hole of the sleeve (matrix) fixed motionless on the rack);
fluctuation of the program cycle time (control points bypass time) from the average value of more than ± 10%;
failure to achieve positioning accuracy at any control point.
5.2.33. After each stage and at the end of the tests in the SD, it is necessary to check the KL value: whether the actual value of KL corresponds to its calculated value. To do this (see Fig. 3), it is necessary to build a graph, in the second quadrant of which to build a curve (theoretical) or a histogram (actual), representing the distribution density of the number of failures or the average time between failures (lines 2 and 2?) for SD, and in the fourth quadrant - the same for HP (lines 1 and 1?). The locus of points corresponding to equal quantiles (S 1 = S 2) gives a curve, the tangent of the angle of inclination of which at any point is nothing more than the coefficient of acceleration of the assessment of the resource K NU.
5.2.33. Adjustment to NU is carried out on the basis of the results of the verification of NU after each stage according to the formula given in paragraph 5.2.19.
5.2.34. Overhaul maintenance and repair.
5.2.34.1. Timesheet overhaul maintenance (often referred to as overhaul maintenance) is an integral part of preventive maintenance. Maintenance and is carried out on the basis of manuals and operating instructions for the PR, manipulator, program control device and drive.
During the operation of the PR in the UR, the time for carrying out the time-based overhaul maintenance is reduced by K NU times (K NU is the coefficient for accelerating the assessment of the resource).
5.2.34.2. In addition to overhaul maintenance, work is carried out, including overhaul maintenance and current repairs, in order to eliminate the causes of failures identified during daily (every shift) inspections.
5.2.34.4. Medium and overhaul are carried out, if necessary, after fault detection carried out by members of the commission appointed to conduct the RS.
5.2.34.5. For the work performed on the repair of PR (modules, parts, blocks), estimates, a summary statement of labor costs and a statement of materials and components, technological repair cards are compiled. If it is necessary to conduct laboratory and other studies to determine the reasons for the failure of parts (assemblies) in the test log, appropriate entries are made. Data from laboratory and other tests are attached to the test report.
5.2.35. Registration of test results.
5.2.35.1. During the tests, a log is kept in which the following are recorded:
type of tested parts of the PR;
date and time of the start of PR tests;
the duration of the tests (daily for each stage);
time and results of measurements of controlled parameters;
test conditions (temperature, power supply voltage, relative humidity, ambient pressure, dust content, vibrations, pressure in the external pneumatic and hydraulic networks);
the number of tested PR;
test mode;
date and time of manifestation of failures, failures and malfunctions;
name of the failed element or node;
measures taken to eliminate failures, failures, malfunctions;
consumption of spare parts and materials for the elimination of failures, failures and malfunctions.
5.2.35.2. Based on the results of resource tests, a report is drawn up, which contains:
the results of processing the test data of each PR from the samples for compliance with passport characteristics;
results of processing and calculation of dynamic test data (see clause 1.2 of these R);
summary results for failures, failures and malfunctions (include a summary table of test data for the reliability of all PR subjected to life tests - Table 4 and calculation of indicators of accuracy (repeatability) of PR positioning and its rate of change? cf).
summary data on the actual indicators of reliability, durability and maintainability;
laws of distribution of individual indicators of reliability of durability and maintainability and densities of their distributions;
assessment of the conformity of the tested PR with passport characteristics;
enlarged structure and composition of sudden and suddenly manifested failures (see Table 6);
generalized nomenclature of failures for each PR (see Table 5);
summary data on time and labor costs required for overhaul maintenance and current repairs (see Table 7);
summary data for each PR for repair after failures (see Table 8);
summary data on timekeeping maintenance (regulations (see Table 9);
Table 4
Summary table of test data for failure-free operation PR... No...
|
Features of accounting for test results |
External manifestation of failure, failed node, element x) |
|
|
Data taking into account all failures or, for example, data without taking into account the failure of manipulator pantograph springs, etc. |
1. Number of failures (or №№ failures in order) |
|
|
2. Time between current failures, t i , h. min |
||
|
3. Mean time between failures, h. min |
||
|
4. Wed. square deviation of operating time between adjacent failures, S i , h. min |
||
|
5. Total operating time, t R , h. min |
x) for example: rupture of the right pantograph spring
Table 5
Generalized nomenclature of failures PR... No...
x) ED1 - symbol of electric motor No. 1
xx) TG2 - symbol of tachogenerator No. 2
Table 6
Enlarged structure and composition of sudden and sudden failures
|
Operating mode (normal, accelerated) |
||||||
|
Main indicator |
Number of failures (units, %) |
|||||
|
For the whole number ETC |
Notes |
|||||
|
Symbol of the part of the PR |
Symbol of the node, assembly |
Test conditions: |
||||
Notes: designations are accepted: M - manipulator, SU - control system, MP - drive mechanism, ED - electric motors, PU - control panel
Table 7
Summary data of time and labor costs, man-hours, required for MO and TR PR..... No.....
Note: introduced conventions: M - manipulator, SU - control system, MO - overhaul maintenance, TR - current repair
Table 8
Summary of repairs PR ... No. ...
Table 9
Summary data on timekeeping maintenance (regulations)
Literature
1. Testing of industrial robots: Guidelines. - M., Ed. NIIMASH, 1983. - 100 p.
2. Nakhapetyan E.G. Experimental study of the dynamics of the mechanisms of industrial robots // Mekhanika mashin. - 1978. - Issue. 53.
3. Bernert I. Festlegung von Prufgroben eine von aussetzung fur die Abnah-mebprufungvon Indusnrierobotern // Maschinenbouteehnik. - 1982 - V. 31, No. 11. - S. 499 - 502.
4. Warnecke H.I., Schraft R.D. Industrieroboten. - Mainz: Krausskopf verlag, 1980.
5. Kalpashnikov S.N., Konyukhov A.G., Korytko I.B., Chelpanov I.B. Requirements for certification testing of industrial robots // Experimental research and diagnostics of robots. - M., Nauka, 1981. - 180 p.
6. Koliskor A.Sh., Kochenov M.I., Pravotorov E.A. Control of the accuracy of the functioning of industrial robots // Study of problems of mechanical engineering on a computer. - M., Nauka, 1977.
7. Warnecke H.I., Schraft R.D. Analysis of industrial robots on a test stand // The Industrial Robot. - 1977. - Desember.
8. Koliskor A.Sh. Development and research of industrial robots based on l- coordinates // Machine tools and tools, - 1982. - No. 12.
9. Zaidel A.I. Elementary estimates of measurement errors. - L .: Nauka, 1968.
10. Artobolevsky I.I. Theory of mechanisms. - M.: Nauka, 1967.
11. Anan'eva E.G., Dobrynin S.A., Feldman M.S. Determination of the dynamic characteristics of a robotic manipulator with the help of a computer // Study of dynamic systems on a computer. - M.. Nauka, 1981.
12. Buchholz N.I. Basic course of theoretical mechanics. 4.1, - M.: Fizmatgiz, 1969.
13. Gradetsky V.G., Veshnikov V.B., Gukasyan A.A. Influence of elastic properties of pneumatic robot mechanisms on static positioning accuracy // Diagnostics of equipment for complex automated production. - M. Nauka, 1984. - S. 88.
INFORMATION DATA
DEVELOPED: All-Union Research Institute for Normalization in Mechanical Engineering (VNIINMASH)
PERFORMERS: Grinfeldt A.G., Dashevsky A.E., Krupnov V.V., Kryukov S.V., Kozlova T.A., Aleksandrovskaya L.N., Nakhapetyan E.G., Vekilov R.V., Shushko D.A., Manzon M.M.
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