So, for example, a partridge, sensing danger, literally runs away from the nest, having previously rolled away the eggs from there in different directions. The bird does this whenever it is disturbed while sitting on the masonry. But then he returns to the nest, carefully collecting the eggs and not damaging any. Of course, this is a peculiar way of caring for offspring.
short-eared owl
Such a large bird as a short-eared owl has a whole family row. Having laid one egg in a safe place under a hummock, the bird waits until the chick hatches, and the later eggs begin to hatch already for a couple with him. This behavior is also characteristic of herons and storks, in which the chicks do not fledge immediately, but gradually.
Variegated three-fingered
in the bogs Far East live variegated three-fingered. Males of this species incubate eggs alone, as the spouse, having laid eggs, goes in search of another groom. The female of the three-finger changes four husbands during the summer, and each male incubates the eggs left by her, and then independently takes care of the offspring, protecting and feeding them. True, it cannot be said that this is a burden for young fathers, because they are excellent teachers and loving parents.
swift
However, there are birds that do not particularly bother worrying about the chicks. In bad weather, swifts leave their nesting sites for several days, leaving the chicks without food. But nature took care of the offspring of these birds, giving their chicks the opportunity to fall into suspended animation for several days, until the negligent parents return. Numbness does not render negative impact on the body of the chick, and after a short period of time the body of the young bird restores all its normal functions.
weed chicken
Weed chickens living on the Pacific islands do not build nests at all for future incubation of masonry. The bird simply buries its eggs in the sand warmed by the sun and this limits its family worries. Later, chicks will hatch from the eggs and immediately begin an independent life.
Cuckoo
The well-known cuckoo does not care about the future generation either. But do not judge her too harshly: the bird throws her eggs into other people's nests because she herself is not able to sit them, because she carries them one at a time and at long intervals. Mother nature has created all the conditions for all her children to grow up, grow up and bring new offspring.
Birds protect grain from all the dangers of their babies and are ready to give their lives for them. A person will approach ducklings or black grouse, a grunt or a black grouse spins in front of his very nose, falling on the wing, like a wounded one, barely moving. A man will rush after her, it seems, is about to catch. But the mother bird will take him away from the chicks, suddenly take off, give a wide circle in the air and return to her brood so that you can’t even see her. Chemga, in a moment of danger, gathers his chemga under his wings and dives with them under the water. And the weak pigalitsa, protecting the chicks, even attacks the dog. The duck has just brought out the puffballs. And after a few hours, in a moment of danger, like fluffy balls, they jump into the water and do not lag behind it a single step.
Cautious quail. One day I landed on a country road near a village in order to replenish food supplies for further travel. A wheat field began from the forest edge. He climbed a hillock and stopped to admire how the grain field was agitated. At this time, very close to me, a reddish-brown bird jumped out of the bushes onto the road. "It must be a quail," I thought, and hid behind a birch. The bird came out into the middle of the road, looked around, and then returned to the roadside bushes. After some time, she appeared on the road, but not alone, but with a whole family of ten kids. Now, in terms of size and plumage, it was no longer difficult to recognize the smallest representative of the chicken order - Quail. Behind her, like downy lumps, the quails were hastily moving. One should have seen how the quail mother touchingly took care of the safety of her babies during this transition.
Bird Secrets. Partridge is one of the most cautious. When her family needs to cross the highway, it is done like this: first, one "mother" goes, reaches the middle of the highway, looks around and returns back for the chicks. They follow her, and "daddy" brings up the rear.
Floating taxi. Once I saw a black-throated loon on the lake. She swam towards the island. But what is it? On the back, huddled tightly against each other, sat two babies dressed in dark downy outfits. Slightly raised wings of a caring mother on the right and on the left protected the little "passengers" from falling into the water. I unexpectedly witnessed the extraordinary move of the loon family from the fishing grounds where it fished to the bird's "hotel".
Case on the Golitsin Ponds. It happened in the fall. A pair of black swans, wintering on the Golitsinsky Ponds in Moscow, began to build their nest in a house. Eggs soon appeared in the nest. In incubation, which lasted much longer than in spring, the main part was taken by the male. The female only occasionally replaced him. And the last four days the male did not leave the nest at all. Just before the appearance of the chicks, the swans changed places. Soon, a squeak began to be heard from the nest. In spring, parents usually immediately go down to the water with the swans. And then gray fluffy lumps huddled under the wings of the mother. Yes, and she herself did not dare to take them outside - it was cold, there was snow and ice all around. People came to the aid of the birds. They moved the whole family to a warm room with a pool.
Unequal fight. Storks have been nesting on the old linden for many years. During the summer, they bred offspring, flew away to warmer climes for the winter, and returned in April. Everyone is used to these birds. On one of the hot days, four chicks unable to fly fell out of a high nest. One died, three survived. They spent the night in the garden under the protection of adult storks, and in the morning they were noticed by dogs. You should have seen how the parents protected the kids. They whirled in the air, flapping their wings, swooped down on the mongrels. Magpies flew to the battlefield, then swallows. There was an unimaginable noise. The storks behaved bravely and forced the dogs to run away. The village children took care of the birds and, until they learned to fly, brought them food.
Falcon-falcon. On the shores of Lake Omsha in the Novgorod region, a falcon family settled. One could spend hours watching the flights of the indefatigable feathered hunter. Sometimes he sat on a pine tree near the tent. The bird has a menacing look, a beautifully planted head, a hooked beak. The predatory appearance of the falcon misleads ignorant people, and they mistakenly consider it a feathered robber, a destroyer. small birds and chickens. Meanwhile, the falcon never attacks them. From dawn to pace, he flies over fields, meadows, lakes, catching beetles, butterflies, grasshoppers from the genus of locusts and other insects. During the day, he flies hundreds of times to the nest with prey for his children. Moreover, unlike birds of prey, the red-footed falcon brings prey not in its claws, but in its beak. Unfortunately, many do not know what benefits this bird brings to gardens, fields and forests.
Unusual "quote". Once I came to visit my relatives Upper Don. In the garden, in thick potato tops, I saw a white hen with ... guinea fowl. And, perhaps, he would not have paid attention to her if she had not suddenly ... crowed. I come closer and see a large proud rooster with a big red comb. In the distance, the already grown-up Caesars are bustling about. Finding a green caterpillar, the rooster called them to him and they rushed to the tasty prey.
In the spring, the hen brought out 20 cesareans. The babies were not even two weeks old, as the mother hen refused them. Her duties diligently began to perform a rooster. The Caesars quickly got used to it. He violently attacked anyone who tried to get close to them. In the fall, the chickens turned into adult guinea fowls, but the unusual "Quot" did not leave them.
Little sparrows. After leaving the nest, yellow-mouthed sparrows tried to learn to fly. Caring parents still fed them, but at the same time taught them to live independently. Once a crow spied: old sparrows flew away, leaving helpless chicks. Hiding among the branches of brushwood, the chicks, noticing the crow, flew to a safe place. The crow tried in every possible way to get one of them, but the sparrow dodged. Probably, feeling its impotence, the gray predator disappeared. And after a while flew in with a partner. One of them remained on top of the pile, the other, hiding below, dived under the brushwood. As soon as the frightened sparrow jumped out, a crow waiting upstairs grabbed him, and then old sparrows appeared on the roof. Feathers flew. The crow had to get out.
Big worries of a little bird. Kraczek slept badly. He was hungry. Yesterday, most of the fish caught had to be given to the chicks. They have grown up and eat more. In the morning he went to the sloping bank of the user. A small bleak fluttered in the sand. He grabbed it and ate it. Splashed on the water, escaping from the pike, other fish. Krachek rushed into the water. In a second, with a fry in its beak, it was already flying to the nest. Spouse! rose towards. The husband quickly put the fish into the mouth of the loudly screaming chick.
Flying with his wife over the nests of other terns for new prey, he loudly shouted "ke-kee-ke". Approaching the bay, they saw that many "hunters" had flown here for fry: ducks, cormorants, gulls. It was noticeable how small fish glisten in the water with silver scales. They rush from side to side, but they cannot swim away: the bay has already separated from the lake. Tern grabbed fry and returned to the nest. Holding the bleak by the head and not letting go of the beak, he let the chick grab the fish. The chick was ruffling the fish, trying to snatch the prey from the "father", who did not immediately open his beak. Finally, the chick got its share, swallowed it in one second and squealed again: yes, yes, yes!!!
Terns hunted all day, flew to the chicks with prey and flew away again. They caught bleak until late in the evening to feed two chicks. And only when the chicks fell asleep, the parents themselves ate their fill. And so they had to get food for the babies every day until they grew up enough to hunt on their own.
Now it's time for the chicks to learn to fly. Now the spouses left them alone for a long time, fed them less often. For several days in a row, spouses with fish in their beaks flew up to the chicks, but did not give up the prey. The chicks have lost a lot of weight. Finally, unable to withstand the hunger, they crawled out of the nest and, as if on a walkway, moved to a reed bush. Here the ground was damp: the water had left only recently. The babies ran, pulling their paws out of the gray odorous silt, crawling with difficulty through the thick reeds, slipping and falling. We finally reached the shore. And then they stopped in awe. Ahead stood a huge unfamiliar beast. It was a jungle cat. His paws, like pillars, blocked the way to the river for the chicks. At this time, noticing the cat, other terns shouted: "kaga, kaga!" and circled over the robber. The cat disappeared into the reeds.
The tern chicks, having escaped mortal danger, returned to their nest. Suddenly, a familiar voice was heard. The chicks raised their heads at once, opened their hungry mouths, squealed. The terns brought them a couple of mayflies. "More! More! More!" demanded the chicks. Parents watched them jump, but in vain - there was no more food. The terns quickly flew away, soon as unexpectedly as before, appeared over the nest with live fish. Until the kids got to the shore on their own, they began to collect hairy caterpillars and mayflies.The chicks grew up, their wings were feathered.They could fly in search of carp.
Mother turkey. At a resident of one village, a turkey laid eggs and sat down to breed turkeys. Noticing this, the turkey began to compete with the mother hen. As soon as the hostess took the turkey to feed, he immediately took her place. Returning, the hen ran into the turkey and drove him away. Then the offended "daddy" raked up small stones and sat on them. The mistress of the birds decided to put under the turkey 13 chicken eggs. He took it for granted. So the turkey became the father of the family, led a dozen chickens around the yard and protected them.
The hen brought out the partridges. While mowing hay, I saw that there was a nest under the scythe, there were testicles in it, and next to it was a mortally wounded partridge. I had to bring the nest home and put it under the hen. After 4 days, 11 partridges hatched. As soon as the small ones got stronger and grew up, I released the birds into the wild.
Meeting 42. HOW DO BIRDS TAKE CARE OF THEIR OFFspring?
Target: tell students about the features of the life of birds, about how birds take care of their offspring; develop observation, speech, thinking, memory; teach the rules of behavior in nature.
During the classes
I. ORGANIZATIONAL MOMENT
II. UPDATE OF BASIC KNOWLEDGE
1. Frontal survey
What is the structure of birds?
What is the significance of the structural features of birds for flight?
How do birds get the energy to fly?
Research: What do the birds you see in your area eat? Give examples.
What fairy tales or songs about birds do you know? What features of these animals are they talking about?
2. Work on the table
Fill the table. Give examples.
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Insects |
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III. MESSAGE TOPICS AND LESSON OBJECTIVES
Today in the lesson you will learn more about the life of birds and the rules of human behavior in nature.
IV. STUDY NEW MATERIAL
1. Work on the textbook (pp. 112-113)
- Remember! Or are fish worried about their offspring?
- Remember!
In the life of birds during the year, several periods can be distinguished. For migratory birds: spring arrival, nesting and breeding, preparation for departure and autumn departure.
Work in pairs
Look at the pictures on page 112 and name which of the birds are migratory and which are sedentary?
The most responsible for birds is the spring period, when it is time to hatch chicks. In spring, birds do not arrive at their homeland at the same time. Males appear at nesting sites earlier than females in order to find and secure a certain nesting territory. They designate it with the help of singing. During incubation, parental responsibilities between dad and mom are distributed differently. In woodpeckers, jays and nightingales, the female incubates the eggs during the day, and the male at night. But in drakes, only the mother duck takes care of the offspring. The females of the hawk, falcon, and eagle also incubate themselves, but the males bring them food. They do this very carefully so as not to betray their nest to enemies or fidget kids.
Look at the pictures on page 113. Explain what they show.
conclusions
Birds take care of their offspring.
The most important spring care of birds is breeding chicks. At this time, they should not be disturbed.
2. Physical education
V. GENERALIZATION AND SYSTEMATIZATION OF KNOWLEDGE
1. Work in groups
Listen to interesting information and think about why small animals - such as insects, fish, amphibians, reptiles - lay a lot of eggs and eggs? Why the larger the animal, the greater the number of its descendants?
Informant. Bedbugs lay 70-100 eggs, Colorado potato beetle - 700, butterflies 100-400. The number of eggs in carp, pike reaches tens of thousands, and large sturgeons “throw out” several million eggs. Reptiles have 10-20 eggs per clutch, which they bury in sand and soil. Birds lay up to 10 eggs. In animals, the birth rate of cubs is the lowest: squirrel - 3-10, cat - 2-6, dog - 2-10, lynx - 1-4, bear - 1-3, elephant - 1, whale - 1.
2. Testing
1. Where does the caterpillar come from?
a) hatch from eggs
b) is born from a pupa. (+)
2. How is a tadpole different from an adult frog?
a) Size only
b) tadpoles have tails and no legs. (+)
3. Where do reptiles lay their eggs?
a) in dry soil; (+)
b) in nests.
4. Do reptiles take care of their offspring?
a) Yes, they care;
b) no, they don't care. (-)
5. Do birds take care of their offspring?
a) Yes, they care; (+)
b) no, they don't care.
Mutual review (in pairs).
3. Challenge
A gray partridge has 20 children, a long-tailed tit has 8 fewer children than a partridge, and a siskin has 7 children less than a titmouse. How many babies are born to a tit and a siskin?
VI. SUMMARIZING. REFLECTION
What animals are called birds? Give examples.
Is the sign of birds significant?
How do birds take care of their offspring?
VII. HOMEWORK
Make the rules of behavior in nature during the period of breeding by birds.
Imagine that you need to tell the inhabitants of a fairy-tale planet about birds, where only insects live. Plan your story.
and different "output" of the process in the form of different quality of young
Recently I realized that the systems of relationships “parents-offspring” and between cubs in birds and mammals are sharply different, and I was able to formulate exactly what.
The difference is that relationships in the context of caring for offspring (within the brood on the one hand, between parents and offspring on the other) are organized in the opposite way, so that they give the opposite result in the form of polar levels of different quality of the young. That is, at the moment of transition to independence during the breakup of a brood in birds, the settlement of young animals in mammals, fledglings from one brood are so different that they are distributed according to two opposite strategies (conditionally “ fast" And " slow”, see below), while young mammals, on the contrary, in their behavior represent a certain variation around the average norm created by the organizing influence of the mother on the formation of the behavior of the cubs (Kruchenkova, 2002).
In birds, the interactions of chicks in the brood and parents with chicks are organized in such a way that the behavioral heterogeneity of the offspring is purposefully enhanced by social means beyond the level that is set by the biological diversity of the chicks themselves. The mutual competition of chicks for food leads to the differentiation of two alternative strategies, conditionally "fast" and "slow", which are most clearly manifested in the two "extreme" chicks (the most mobile and quick-witted and "the most stupid, stereotyped" according to Berndt Heinrich's description of chicks crow Corvuscorax), and all the others are distributed among them. Reinforcement from parents (positive - in the form of food, negative - in the form of the periodic presentation of a song that makes one alert and alarms that make one lie low) affects the chicks in such a way that it reinforces the differentiation of strategies of different chicks and stimulates each chick to further specialize in a once chosen strategy, do not stop and do not change it. The details of the process are described in detail in the studies by S.N. Khayutin and L.P. Dmitrieva (1981, 1991), carried out mainly on the pied flycatcher ficedulahypoleuca .
As a result, by the time of departure, the behavioral heterogeneity of chicks is maximum and, on the whole, corresponds to that of adults in the breeding population.
In the broods of mammals, above the organization that birds have, interactions of a different level are superimposed, associated with social support development specific forms activity of cubs from the mother. The behavior of the mother is characterized by maximum responsiveness to immature manifestations of the activity of the cubs - in response to them, the mother is included in joint activities with the cub, so that the "ripening" of specific forms of activity in the offspring does not occur autonomously, as in birds, but in the course of joint activity with the mother. Being formed, the behavior of the young is gradually freed from dependence on joint activities with the mother and begins to manifest itself (governed) under the influence of its own mechanisms (Kruchenkova, 2002).
In primates and many other species (carnivores, some monogamous ungulates), the joint activity of cubs with the males of the group (not necessarily fathers) has the same formative influence on the maturation and specialization of the behavior of the young as joint activity with the mother. On the other hand, the behavior of young mammals is also more sensitive to social stimulation than mature ones, and responds to stimulation with similar adult behavior with maturation, specialization, differentiation of forms, and not “just a reaction”, as in birds.
In this case, the mother in mammals sets the rate of development of the behavior of the cubs, accelerating or restraining it, according to the situation, in the same way and for all at once. Accordingly, the mother (and father/other males) here has a leveling effect on the brood, so that the heterogeneity of the young is reduced as much as possible - the aftereffect of organizing influences from the mother significantly exceeds the differentiating effect of competition within the brood (Kruchenkova, 2002). Moreover, the results of the latter in the form of a stable distribution of roles manifest themselves mainly when the behavior of the young is already formed and freed from maternal influence. And at this moment, all “puppies of the same litter” are on average similar to each other in essential behavioral characteristics, so their individual behavior is a certain deviation from the “brood” average.
In birds, the opposite is true: in the course of interactions in the nest, the chicks compete for the primary food, and in the course of competition, two opposite strategies are differentiated, relatively speaking “fast” and “slow”. "Fast" chicks are strong, active, not afraid of novelty (including ready to receive food, not being afraid of the parents' alarm cries, rustling, nest shaking, etc.). They are the first to break through to the notch, moving through the entire bottom of the nest box, they are the first to receive food, eat and fall asleep, freeing up space.
It is, so to speak, competitive strategy: the chick itself, to the best of its ability, forms the most favorable circumstances for obtaining food, not being afraid of variability and instability outside world. Alternative strategy - tolerant: chicks that lose all attempts to rush and take food first, and gradually get used to making the most of those periods of time for taking food when the most competitive chicks have already eaten and freed the entrance or the edge of the nest. To do this, they do not move and almost all the time they sit under the entrance, that is, they passively wait for favorable circumstances and, when the appropriate stimulation occurs (the parent arrives with food), they react stereotypically to the impact.
At the beginning of the rearing period, the competitive strategy is much more profitable than the tolerant one, and the second chicks are strongly lose weight. But then the situation levels off and by the time of departure, the representatives of all the chicks have approximately the same weight, but the behavioral strategies (begging for food and responding to parental signals) turn out to be maximally differentiated. Much more than can be expected, based on the biological heterogeneity of the chicks at the beginning of the rearing period.
A kind of “carousel” arises, a continuous “circulation of chicks in the nest”: individuals successively replace each other at the nest, almost without entering into a physical collision, so that representatives of “more tolerant” strategies use periods of rest and satiety of chicks of “more competitive” strategies. Since parents actively support this system, reinforcing every step along the path of differentiation with food, it is logical to assume that the heterogeneity of chicks, reflected in the differentiation of strategies, was not given initially, but was created by social means. This constant “circulation of chicks in the nest” leads to the fact that the space inside the nest turns out to be anisotropic and chicks with different strategies occupy different “positions” relative to the center of food intake - the entrance or the edge of the nest. The “faster” the strategy of the chick, the further it is from the entrance when full, and the faster it makes its way to it when it is hungry. "Slow" individuals are under the entrance all the time.
This “circulation”, which differentiates chicks, was first shown for the hollow nest of the pied flycatcher, whose chicks are in nest boxes, where there is one clear center for eating - the entrance hole and it is possible to give a clear signal about the arrival of the parents by reducing the illumination from the closing of the entrance hole and shaking the walls from hitting the hollow. But in open-nesting birds, the same differentiation of chicks into “fast” and “slow” takes place. Immediately before the flight, a “smart and nimble” chick stands out, ready to climb into everything and explore everything, its opposite is the dumbest chick of the brood, afraid of novelty and stereotypically reacting to stimulation. And the rest of the chicks are in the middle. In particular, this is described for crow chicks by Berndt Heinrich (1994).
These behavioral differences in chicks persist but do not increase in adult birds, manifesting themselves as an alternative of "fast" and "slow" bird phenotypes in natural populations. On big tits (Parus major) it has been shown that in terms of indicators of locomotor mobility and mobility response to novelty, the same strategies are distinguished in the breeding population as in nestlings. In "fast" individuals, in response to novelty, mobility and exploratory reactions increase, in "slow" individuals, on the contrary, they are suppressed ( Drent et al., 2003; Dingemanse et al., 2002, 2003; Dingemanse, 2007).
"Fast" and "slow" phenotypes in tits can be separated, for example, by testing in an "open field" according to the method Dingemanse et al . (2002), or using the “doubling the enclosure” method, when the behavioral strategy of an individual is manifested in the speed of mastering a suddenly appeared new space (Ilyina et al., 2006).
In double enclosures, the probability of reproduction was higher in the "fast" individuals, who actively mastered a new adjacent room. In males, the rate of development of a new territory positively correlated with the result of testing in the "open field". In contrast to the probability of breeding, its success and timing did not depend on the size of the enclosures (single or double), but were associated with the results of testing in the open field, that is, with the dichotomy of "fast" and "slow" phenotypes. "Fast" females earlier slow began to show reproductive behavior, but Later started laying eggs and worse hatched the laid eggs. The phenotype of the male also influenced: the partners of the “fast” males showed reproductive behavior earlier, while the “slow” males began to incubate the clutch earlier. Finally, the superiority of the male over the female in terms of testing in the “open field” increased the likelihood of manifestations of male reproductive activity in the pre-nesting period (Ivankina et al., 2006).
That is, in the social interactions of animals in the community, “fast” individuals stimulate their partner better, but worse (less accurately, with a higher probability of errors and failures) realize their social role. And in reproduction and social communication, the accuracy of the implementation of specific forms of signals and forms of relationships is no less important than the strength and intensity of stimulation between partners. The division into "fast" and "slow" individuals in the population is in good agreement with "my" division of individuals into those committed to competitive and tolerant strategies as two mutually exclusive alternatives. The former prefer high social density and are sensitive to environmental stress, the latter prefer low density, uncompetitive under conditions of social stress.
It was also shown in the Dutch population of great tits that the alternativeness of "fast" and "slow" phenotypes is also associated with the alternativeness of strategies for social, foraging and reproductive behavior - everything that requires a reaction to novelty, the ability to control the situation without fear of the risk associated with this novelty itself (or vice versa, avoidance of novelty and self-restraint by an environment where one can only behave stereotypically), cf. Drent et al., 2003; Dingemanse et al., 2003.
The authors, who studied only adults, believe that the dichotomy of "fast" and "slow" phenotypes is hereditary. Heritability was determined indirectly and amounted to 0.22-0.41 according to the regression method "parents-offspring", according to the analysis of siblings 0.37-0.41 ( Dingemanse et al., 2002).
However, studies of ontogeny show that both alternative strategies are not innate, but “made”, the differentiating effect of signal heredity, social influences within the brood and from parents here “mimics” the effect of genetic heredity. On the one hand, competitive interactions in the brood are organized as follows that create the "embryo" of differentiation strategies in the form of situational deviations of behavior in one direction or another in chicks, by chance found themselves in a certain role. On the other hand, parents with positive and negative stimulation (bringing food, making them move - singing, making you alert - an alarming cry, making you hide) affect the differentiating behavior of the chicks in the direction of "increasing fluctuations", designing and fixing them in the form of differentiated strategies, following which as specialization deepens, it turns out to be more profitable for each chick (= more efficient in terms of obtaining food and minimizing the overall risk of ruining the nest) than adjusting and changing the strategy. It reinforces and reinforces general scheme differentiation within the brood.
If the parental behavior in birds, as it were, "pushes" the chicks according to different strategies that differentiate in competitive interactions within the brood, acts as a kind of diversifying influence, then in mammals, the effect of the mother and father on the cubs is exactly the opposite, leading their behavior to some general norm. The differentiation of individual behavioral roles here occurs relatively late, when the mother ceases to be the organizer of the behavior of the cubs, and all forms of activity of the cubs have reached maturity and are associated with the interactions of the cubs with each other without the participation of parents. At earlier stages, the influence of the mother lies in the fact that with immature manifestations of various forms of activity of the cub, the mother (and the father, where he interacts with them) is included in the joint activity of the cubs, which leads to the maturation of the corresponding form of behavior and emancipation from the organizing influence of the mother . That is, the maturation of species-specific behavior in mammals always requires the social support of parents (i.e., zone of proximal development principle L.S. Vygotsky per person can be extended to all mammals, but not on birds!) and at the same time, the leveling influence of the mother on different cubs is naturally. In birds, parents do not engage in social support, chicks organize their interactions themselves, and parents organize only reinforcement and selection.
Accordingly, the broods of birds work as diversifying systems that create and reinforce the differentiation of the behavioral roles of the young between the two poles of alternatives that are essential for a given species and population. Broods of mammals act as levelers, the differentiation of roles occurs later, during the period of growing up and mutual games of grown puppies. The low activity of the cub stimulates the mother's initiative, and the activity of the cub above a certain level inhibits the initiative of the mother. The same is true of the maturation (specialization) of different forms of behavior. In birds, under the influence of parents on the corresponding process, a positive feedback occurs, encouraging the deviation of behavior patterns from the average at each of the successive stages of maturation (primarily, motor activity, begging and hiding behavior, with appropriate vocalization). In mammals, a similar effect forms a negative feedback, leading all puppies to the "average developmental norm" set by the parental behavior of the mother (and father, other males - where they are supposed).
For example, agonistic interactions in wolf cubs not only build a social hierarchy in a group of individuals, but have a much longer-range effect. The division into dominants and subordinates created by them forms the basis for the subsequent distribution of roles between wolves when they attack the prey. Depending on the social status, young wolves during group hunting choose different ways of pursuing themselves, attacking different parts of the victim’s body, etc. there is neither differentiation of roles when attacking a prey, nor effective interaction of wolves when mastering it (Badridze, 2003).
Sources
Badridze Ya.K., 2003. Wolf. Issues of behavior ontogenesis, problems and method of reintroduction. M.: publishing house GEOS. 117 p.
Ilyina T.A., Ivankina E.V., Kerimov A.B., 2006. Influence of the spatial factor and individual characteristics of behavior on the reproduction of great tits in captivity - Report on XII All-Union Ornithological Conf. in Stavropol.
Kruchenkova, E.P., 2002. Principles of the mother-calf relationship in mammals. Abstract and manuscript of diss. doctor of biological sciences M. 409 p.
Khayutin S. N., Dmitrieva L. P., 1981. Organization of the natural behavior of nestlings. - M.: Science. 136 p.
Khayutin S.N., Dmitrieva L.P., 1991. Organization of early species-specific behavior. M.: Science. 221 p.
Heinrich B., 1994. Raven in winter. M.: "Mir". 522 p.
Dingemanse N.J., Both C., Drent P.J., Van Oers K., Van Noordwijk A.J. 2002.Repeatability and heritability of exploratory behavior in Great Tits from the wild// Anim. behavior. Vol.64. P.929-938
Dingemanse N.J., Both C., Van Noordwijk A.J., Rutten A.L., Drent P.J. 2003.
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