Bibliographic communication as a phenomenon of social communication. Communication. Status roles of communication participants

Theoretical and methodological prerequisites for the study of communication.
A person cannot live, work, satisfy his material and spiritual needs without communicating with other people. Historically and in the process of individual development of communication is necessary condition human existence, one of the most important factors of its social development. Being an essential aspect of many varieties of human activity, communication reflects the objective need of people to unite, cooperate with each other, and is also a condition for the development of identity, integrity, and individuality of a person.
The concept of “communication” is used in psychological literature in different meanings: as an exchange of thoughts, feelings, experiences (L. S. Vygotsky, S. L. Rubinshtein), as one of the varieties of human activity (B. G. Ananiev, N. S. Kagan, I. S. Kon, A. A. Leontiev), as a specific social form information communication (A. D. Ursul, L. A. Reznikov), etc.
Such diversity in the definition of this concept is explained by the insufficient development of the problem of the essence of this phenomenon, as well as the difficulties of distinguishing communication as a specific phenomenon from other areas. public life- industrial, political, cultural. Pointing to the complexity and versatility of communication, B. D. Parygin notes, not without reason, that it can be simultaneously information process and the interaction of people with each other, the process of their empathy, mutual understanding and the influence of one person on another.
The versatility of communication is even in those phrases that are very often used both in the scientific and in the ordinary sense: “spiritual”, “material”, “interpersonal”, “mass”, “intimate” and other communication. And this is not surprising, because most varieties of human activity (work, play, teaching, war, trade, love, tourism, education, leadership, management, etc.) are closely related to communication with other people. Even in the case when a person is alone with himself, she often acts as if she is included in some kind of human community and communicates with its members.

Human communication develops and is formed on the basis of joint labor activity. In the process of labor, people influence not only nature, but also each other; they cannot produce something without uniting in a certain way for joint activity and for the mutual exchange of the products of their activity. In this regard, history is a system of interconnected forms of communication. This system of interactions and mutual influences is the social process, the essence of which, in contrast to work as the production of things (“the processing of nature by people”), is the production of relations (“the processing of people by people”).
In a broad sense, communication is that side of human existence that indicates the connection and interaction of people in the process of material and spiritual production, a way to implement social relations, which is carried out through direct or indirect contacts, in which individuals and groups of people enter in the process of their social life. It is through communication that people and social groups enter into material, political, religious and other relations with each other. It can be said that communication is the key mechanism of the existence of human society, which manifests itself in direct or indirect contact between people.

Communication is a process of information and subject interaction between people, in which their interpersonal relationships are formed and implemented. Manifested during direct contacts, these relations are determined and regulated by the entire system of social relations, conditions social production, as well as the interests of individuals and social groups in the exercise of their social functions. This is a kind of “section” of social relations, presented at the empirical level, a kind of their personal expression.
The phenomenon of communication and the psychology of communication involves the establishment of direct contacts between those who communicate (“face-to-face contact”), allows you to directly respond and influence the actions and statements of another, to perceive each other as unique personalities. This kind of communication develops, first of all, in small social groups. The basic, main typical situation of interpersonal communication is a dyad, a paired socio-psychological connection (in a small social group, everyone communicates with everyone, without intermediaries). The set of paired interactions forms a system of interpersonal relationships both at the level of intragroup and at the level of intergroup communication. However, since a person cannot simultaneously be in direct communication with a large number of people, the connections between groups, especially large ones, come from their individual representatives.
Allocate material and spiritual, direct (immediate) and mass (mediated) communication.
material communication- this is the relationship and interaction of people in the course of material and practical activities, primarily in the process of labor and production, as well as their behavior in various fields public life. Spiritual communication acts as an exchange of various intellectual and emotional information through living natural human speech, mass media and non-verbal means.
Communication- this is a kind of interaction between people in which the latter act relative to each other simultaneously (or sequentially) as both objects and subjects. It is thanks to communication that the act of person A becomes a circumstance in the life of persons B, C, D, etc., and their actions, expressive actions, in turn, become the circumstances of life A. Therefore, individual psychological qualities of a person play a significant role in communication, to which BG Ananiev also points out, emphasizing that it is practically impossible to separate the personal from the public in the structure and dynamics of communication, to draw a clear line between them. Therefore, there is every reason to assert that communication is a social phenomenon in which individual characteristics persons - its participants.

1. COMMUNICATION AS A SOCIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL PHENOMENON

Communication (from lat. communico - I make it common, I connect, I communicate) - 1) The way of communication, the line of communication. 2) Message, communication.

Communication refers to the processes of transcoding the verbal into the non-verbal and non-verbal into the verbal spheres. It can also be noted that we are talking about the discrepancy between input and output that is characteristic of communication systems. In a standard communicative act, non-verbal reactions to a message are also important, since the most significant manifestations of admiration, surprise, hatred, etc. have an emphatically reduced verbal component in the form of various interjections.

In the communicative process, there is not a simple movement of information, but at least an active exchange of it. The main “gain” in specifically human exchange of information is that here the significance of information plays a special role for each participant in communication, because people do not just “exchange” meanings, but also strive to develop a common meaning. This is possible only if the information is not just accepted, but also understood and comprehended. The essence of the communicative process is not just mutual information, but a joint comprehension of the subject. Therefore, in every communicative process, activity, communication and cognition are really given in unity.

As a method of communication analysis, we will stick to content analysis. Content analysis is actively used to solve the problems of communication analysis in the field of government and business structures. Its essence lies in the translation of verbal information into a more objective non-verbal form. Therefore, all definitions of content analysis emphasize its objective nature.

In this case, objectivity is interpreted as follows: each step can be made only on the basis of explicitly formulated rules and procedures. Therefore, the repeatability of results when using the same material by different researchers becomes an important verification mechanism. Because what usually happens in the humanities: we can give a task to 50 people, and they will give us 50 results. In this regard, content analysis is a fairly accurate research technique.

For a more complete description of the method, the following should be added. First, all statistical data of verbal material is used to formulate conclusions about non-verbal aspects, for example, about certain characteristics of the addressee and addressee. Therefore, the text material here is represented as an intermediate object. In this case, we are not interested in the text at all. And second: in itself, finding out the frequency of use, for example, by the writer X., of such and such a word with such and such frequency is not content analysis. Content analysis is always a comparison of two streams. For example, comparing two newspapers as two verbal streams. It is also possible to compare non-verbal and verbal flows: data on fertility and information about children-heroes in literary magazines. Of interest is the study of this verbal flow and the norm: the frequency of the use of a certain word in the writer's works and the standard frequency of the use of the same word in the language of that time.

1.1 The nature of the emergence of the communication process

The beginning of the study of communication was laid by the psychology of the masses and, above all, by Gabriel Tarde. According to Tarde, the role of communication in society is so significant that one or another of its forms determine certain types of social relations, including power relations.

The founder of cybernetics Norbert Wiener, in his first book, identified the concepts of "communication" and "control", since the transmission of messages is equivalent to controlling the behavior and actions of any devices, machines, organisms, and in a broader sense - controlling the functioning of systems.

The inseparable connection between communication and power is also recognized by modern researchers. In this regard, the title of R. Blakar's work "Language as an instrument of social power" is indicative. But communication is not only language, not only verbal interaction. G. Tarde, G. Lebon and 3. Freud noted the special role of non-verbal means of communication - gaze, facial expressions, gestures, postures, body movements, etc., because speaking of imitation (Tard), infection (Lebon) and trance (Freud) mass psychology primarily had in mind non-verbal interaction.

Tarde quite logically believed that the original form of communication is conversation.

The conversation has become one of the most topical subjects of research in modern psychology and sociology, causing increased interest among scientists for many reasons. In this chapter, we will discuss some theoretical aspects this topic.

Modern theory communication is developed both by philosophy and by a wide variety of sciences - from social to technical, computer disciplines. Its problem area includes an extremely wide range of phenomena - from intrapersonal communication processes (internal dialogue in the mind of an individual) to large-scale communication processes in socio-cultural systems and even in the world community as a whole, where scientific and technological achievements are used and mass media are involved. , including global computer networks.

Interpersonal communication is considered to be a traditional area of research in social psychology.

In the very general view Three groups of functions are recognized for communication:

1. information and communication;

2. regulatory and communicative;

3. affective-communicative.

1.2 The essence of the communication process

Communication is the process of creating and conveying meaningful messages in an informal conversation, group interaction, or public speaking. This process includes participants, context, messages, channels, the presence or absence of noise, and feedback.

Participants are people who participate in the communication process and play the roles of senders and recipients of messages. As senders, participants form messages and seek to convey them through verbal symbols and non-verbal behavior. As recipients, they process and respond to received messages and behavioral cues.

Context is the physical, social, historical, psychological and cultural environment in which the communication process takes place.

The physical context of a communication event includes its location, conditions environment(temperature, lighting, noise level), physical distance between participants and time of day.

The social context includes the purpose of the communication and the pre-existing relationships between the participants.

The historical context includes connections formed between participants in previous communication episodes that affect understanding in current situation.

The psychological context includes the moods and feelings that each of the interlocutors brings to the communication.

The cultural context includes beliefs, values, attitudes, social hierarchy, religion, group roles, and the concept of time.

A message is a combination of meaning, symbols, encoding-decoding, and form or mode of organization.

Meaning is your awareness of thoughts and feelings.

Symbols are words, sounds, and actions that represent the specific content of a meaning.

Encoding and decoding

The cognitive thought process of transforming ideas and feelings into symbols and organizing them into the form of a message is called message encoding; the reverse process of transforming messages into ideas and feelings is called decoding.

Form or organization

If the value is complex, you may need to organize it into sections or arrange it in a specific order.

A channel is both the route of a message and the means by which it is transmitted. Messages are transmitted through sensory channels. In direct contact between people, two main channels are used: sound (verbal symbols) and visible signals (non-verbal cues).

Noise is any external, internal or semantic stimulus that interferes with the process of information exchange.

External noises are objects, sounds and other environmental stimuli that distract people's attention from what is being said or done.

Internal noises are thoughts and feelings that interfere with the communication process.

Semantic noise is a value that is unintentionally conveyed by some symbols and interferes with decoding accuracy.

Feedback is a reaction to a message. Feedback indicates to the person who transmitted the message whether the message was received, and if so, how it was heard, seen, understood. If a verbal or non-verbal response indicates to the sender that the intended meaning was not heard, then the initiator may try to encode the message in another way, while emphasizing his understanding of the conveyed meaning. This recoded message is also feedback, as it responds to the recipient's reaction. In any communication process - interpersonal, taking place in a small group, in public speaking - we are trying to evoke the maximum possible feedback in a given situation.

1.2.1 Communication functions

Communication performs a number of functions and occurs in various situations, both in the form of direct direct communication and through electronic means.

Communication performs several important functions for us.

1. We communicate to meet the need for communication.

2. We communicate to improve and maintain our self-image.

3. We communicate to fulfill social obligations.

4. We communicate to build relationships.

5. We communicate to exchange information.

6. We communicate to influence others.

1.2.2 Communication conditions

Situation of interpersonal communication

Most often, communication occurs in a situation of interpersonal communication, which is an informal conversation between two or more people.

Situation of group decision making

The group decision-making situation is characterized by the fact that people come together to solve certain problems.

Public speaking situation

In a public speaking situation, the speaker speaks to an audience in public place with a prepared official announcement. Situation of communication through electronic means

Today we use electronic means of communication more and more. Participants in electronic communication do not have a common physical context; this type of communication relies on the use of technology. As a consequence, the part of the meaning of the message that is normally conveyed by non-verbal signals is not available to the recipient.

Information, on the contrary, in most cases is not aware of its non-verbal behavior. Chapter 3 Comparative characteristics verbal and non-verbal communication 3.1 Features of verbal communication The main feature of verbal communication is verbal communication, which is inherent only to a person and, as a prerequisite, involves the acquisition of a language. By their...

With the action of chronotypes.4. Means of communication. The transmission of any information is possible only through signs, more precisely sign systems. There are several sign systems that are used in the communication process. Distinguish between verbal and non-verbal communication using different sign systems. 4.1. verbal communication. Verbal communication uses...

Pitfalls in the process of communication. Therefore, in the second chapter, our attention is directed directly to teaching non-verbal means of communication in the learning process. foreign language. We examined the features of personal and work relationships in Russian and German cultures; gestures used in Russian and German communicative behavior. Based on these facts, we have developed...

Messages received are being decrypted. All this becomes meaningful only in the act of communication and leads to misunderstanding and tension, difficulty and impossibility of communication. Finally, intercultural communication is based on the process of symbolic interaction between individuals and groups whose cultural differences can be recognized.; perceptions and attitudes towards these differences affect the view, ...

Questions

1. Communication as a socio-psychological phenomenon. Communication functions.

2. Types of communication.

3. Characteristics of the communicative side of communication.

4. Characteristics of the interactive side of communication.

5. Characteristics of the perceptual side of communication.

Communication as a socio-psychological phenomenon.

Communication functions.

The problem of communication is one of the central ones in social psychology. Each of us lives and works among people. We go to visit, meet friends, do some common work with colleagues, etc. In any situation, we, regardless of our desire, communicate with people - parents, peers, teachers, colleagues. We love some, we are neutral towards others, we hate the third, and we don’t know why we are talking to the fourth. The need for joint activity leads to the need for communication. It is in joint activities that a person must interact with other people, establish various contacts with them, organize joint actions to obtain the desired result.

Communication is characteristic of all living beings, but at the human level it acquires the most perfect forms, becomes conscious And mediated by speech. The person who conveys information is called communicator receiving it - recipient.

The specificity of communication is determined by the fact that in its process the subjective world of one person is revealed to another. In communication, a person self-determines and self-presents, revealing his individual characteristics. By the form of the impacts carried out, one can judge the communicative skills and character traits of a person, by the specifics of the organization of a speech message - about the general culture and literacy.

The mental development of a child begins with communication. Of particular importance for the mental development of the child is his communication with adults in the early stages of ontogenesis. This is the first type of social activity that arises in ontogenesis and thanks to which the child receives the information necessary for his individual development. In communication, first through direct imitation, and then through verbal instructions, the child's basic life experience is acquired.

The concept of "communication" refers to the number of interdisciplinary categories. It is studied by philosophy, psychology, sociology, and pedagogy. These sciences consider communication as one of the types of human activity that provides other types of activity (play, work, educational activity). Communication is and social process, since it serves group (collective) activities and implements social relations. Often, communication is reduced only to communication - the transfer, exchange of information through language or other sign means.

The category of "communication" is developed in sufficient detail in domestic psychological science. So, BF Lomov considers communication as an independent side of human existence, not reducible to activity. A. N. Leontiev understands communication as one of the activities. D. B. Elkonin and M. N. Lisina consider communication as a specific type of activity that arises in ontogenesis. Close to them is the position of a number of scientists (S. L. Rubinshtein, L. S. Vygotsky, A. N. Leontiev). BG Ananiev points out the importance of communication as one of the determinants of the development of the human psyche. The point of view on communication as an activity of the subject, the object of which is another person, a communication partner (Ya. L. Kolominsky), has become widespread.

Modern psychological and pedagogical science uses various definitions of the concept of "communication". Here are just a few of them:

1. Communication- the process of establishing and developing contacts between people, which is based on the motivation of the participants, aimed at changing the behavior and personal-semantic neoplasms of the partner.

2. Communication- a complex, multifaceted process of establishing and developing contacts between people, generated by the need for joint activities and including the exchange of information, the development unified strategy interaction, perception and understanding of another person.

3. In a broad sense communication- one of the forms of interaction of social subjects, the process of exchanging rational and emotional-evaluative information, methods of activity (skills), as well as the results of activity in the form of material things and cultural values.

4. Communication- the interaction of two or more people, consisting in the exchange between them of information of a cognitive or affective-evaluative nature.

5. Under communication refers to external, observable behavior in which interpersonal relationships are actualized and manifested (Ya. L. Kolominsky).

Robert Semenovich Nemov identifies a series of aspects: content, target And facilities.

Purpose of communication- answers the question "For the sake of what does a creature enter into an act of communication?". In animals, the goals of communication usually do not go beyond the biological needs that are relevant to them (warning of danger). For a person, these goals can be very, very diverse and represent a means of satisfying social, cultural, creative, cognitive, aesthetic and many other needs.

Means of communication- ways of encoding, transmitting, processing and decoding information that is transmitted in the process of communication from one living being to another. Encoding information is a way of transmitting it. Information between people can be transmitted using the senses (touching the body), speech and other sign systems, writing, technical means recording and storing information.

Structure of communication. Traditionally, in the structure of communication, researchers distinguish three interconnected aspects of communication – communicative side of communication(information exchange between subjects), interactive side of communication(influencing the behavior, attitudes, opinions of interlocutors in the course of communication, building overall strategy interactions), perceptual side of communication(perception, study, establishment of mutual understanding, evaluation of each other by communication partners) (G. M. Andreeva).

B. D. Parygin offers a more detailed structure communication:

Subjects of communication;

Means of communication;

Needs, motivation and goals of communication;

Ways of interaction, mutual influence and reflection of influences in the process of communication;

Communication results.

Communication functions. According to the ideas of B. F. Lomov, the following three are distinguished in communication functions: information and communication ( covering the processes of receiving and transmitting information), regulatory and communicative ( related to the mutual adjustment of actions in the implementation of joint activities), affective-communicative ( relating to the emotional sphere of a person and meeting the needs to change one's own emotional state).

A. A. Brudny identifies the following functions communication:

§ instrumental necessary for the exchange of information in the process of management and joint work;

§ syndicated which finds its expression in the cohesion of small and large groups;

§ translational necessary for training, transfer of knowledge, methods of activity, evaluation criteria;

§ self-expression function focused on finding and achieving mutual understanding.

R. S. Nemov believes that, according to its purpose, communication is multifunctional. Therefore, he highlights the following functions communication:

1. pragmatic function. It is implemented by the interaction of people in the process of joint activities.

2. Formative function. It manifests itself in the process of formation and change of the mental appearance of a person. It is known that at certain stages the development, activity and attitude of the child to the world and to himself depends indirectly on his communication with an adult.

3. Confirmation function. In the process of communicating with other people, a person gets the opportunity to know, approve and confirm himself. Wanting to establish himself in his existence and his value, a person is looking for a foothold in other people.

4. The function of organizing and maintaining interpersonal relationships. Communication contributes to the organization and maintenance of interpersonal relationships.

5. intrapersonal function. This function is realized in a person's communication with himself (through internal or external speech) and contributes to the development of reflection.

Types of communication

Communication can be considered from various bases and, accordingly, we should talk about the existence of many types of communication.

So, N. I. Shevandrin identifies the following forms and types of communication:

1.Direct and indirect communication. direct communication carried out with the help of natural organs given to a living being by nature: hands, head, torso, vocal cords, etc. mediated communication– communication using written or technical devices.

2.Interpersonal and mass communication. interpersonal communication is associated with direct contacts of people in groups or pairs, constant in composition of participants. Mass communication- this is a lot of contacts of strangers, as well as communication mediated by various types of media.

3.Interpersonal and role communication. In the first case, the participants in communication are specific individuals. In the case of role-playing communication, its participants act as carriers of roles (teacher-student, boss-subordinate).

Robert Semenovich Nemov considers kinds communication on content, goals And means.

* material communication (exchange of objects and products of activity);

* cognitive communication (exchange of information, knowledge);

*conditional communication (influence on the physical or mental state of each other);

* motivational communication (exchange of motives, goals, interests, motives, needs);

* activity communication (exchange of actions, operations, skills, skills).

By goals:

* biological (to maintain, preserve and develop the body);

* social (development of interpersonal relationships, personal growth).

By funds:

* direct communication (with the help of natural organs given to a living being);

* indirect (using special means and tools for organizing communication);

* direct (personal contacts and direct perception of those communicating);

* indirect (carried out through intermediaries).

Psychologist L. D. Stolyarenko highlights the types of communication the nature of the course:

* "contact of masks" (formal communication when familiar masks are used (politeness, severity, indifference));

* primitive communication (when they evaluate another person as a necessary or interfering object (if necessary, they make contact, interfere, they push away));

* formal-role communication (when both the content and means of communication are regulated, and instead of knowing the personality of the interlocutor, they manage with knowledge of his social role);

*business conversation(when they take into account the personality traits of the interlocutor, but the interests of the case are put in the foreground),

* spiritual and interpersonal communication (the type of communication that is observed in friendly relations);

* manipulative communication (communication aimed at extracting benefits using various techniques (flattery, intimidation, deceit));

* secular communication (its essence is non-objectivity, that is, people do not say what they think, but what is supposed to be said in a given situation).

Types of communication include non-verbal And verbal. Non-verbal communication does not involve the use of sound speech, natural language as a means of communication. Non-verbal communication is communication through facial expressions, gestures and pantomime, through direct sensory or bodily contact. These are tactile, visual, auditory, olfactory and other sensations and images received from another person. Most of the non-verbal forms and means of communication in humans are innate and allow him to interact on the emotional and behavioral levels. Many higher animals (dogs, monkeys and dolphins) have been given the ability Not verbal communication with each other and with people.

Verbal communication inherent only to man and as a prerequisite involves the assimilation language. In terms of its communicative capabilities, it is much richer than non-verbal forms of communication, although in life it cannot completely replace it. The development of verbal communication relies on non-verbal means of communication.

Also in social psychology there are imperative, manipulative And dialogic communication. Let's consider them in more detail.

imperative communication- this is an authoritarian, directive form of interaction with a communication partner in order to achieve control over his behavior, attitudes and thoughts, forcing him to certain actions or decisions. The peculiarity of the imperative is that final goal communication - coercion of a partner - is not veiled. Orders, instructions and demands are used as means of exerting influence. The imperative form of communication can be effectively used in military statutory relations, in relations of the “chief-subordinate” type in extreme situations, in work with emergency situations. But in intimate-personal, child-parent, pedagogical relations, the imperative form of communication is extremely unproductive, since the “top-down” setting is implemented first of all.

manipulative communication- this is a form of interpersonal communication, in which the impact on the communication partner in order to achieve their intentions is carried out hidden. As an imperative, manipulation involves the desire to gain control over the behavior and thoughts of another person. The sphere of "allowed manipulation" is business and business relations in general.

The symbol of this type of communication was the concept developed by Dale Carnegie and his followers. Dale Carnegie(November 24, 1888 - November 1, 1955) - American writer, publicist, educational psychologist, teacher. He stood at the origins of the creation of the theory of communication, translating scientific developments psychologists of that time practical area. Developed his own concept of conflict-free and successful communication. Dale Carnegie lived by the principle of no bad people. And there are unpleasant circumstances that you can deal with, and it’s not at all worth it to spoil the life and mood of others because of them. Main works: “Oratory and influencing business partners"(1926); "Little Known Facts" famous people"(1934); “How to Win Friends and Influence People” (1936) during the life of the author, more than 5 million copies were sold); How to Stop Worrying and Start Living (1948); How to Build Self-Confidence and Influence People by Speaking in Public.

Dale Carnegie, American writer, publicist, educational psychologist, lecturer. He stood at the origins of the creation of the theory of communication, translating the scientific developments of psychologists of that time into a practical area, having developed his own concept of conflict-free and successful communication.

Carnegie was born on November 24, 1888 at Maryville Farm in Missouri. Born into a farmer's family in the American outback. And although his family lived in great poverty, nevertheless, due to his own perseverance, he was able to get a good education. He became interested in oratory in his school years, actively participating in all kinds of disputes, and even then the teachers noted his special sociability. Even at school, teachers noted Dale's special sociability. After leaving school, Carnegie began working as a delivery boy in Nebraska, then as an actor in New York, and finally decided to study public speaking. The classes were very successful, and Dale decided to start his own practice. While attending Teachers College in Warrensburg, the family was unable to pay for his boarding and Dale rode his horse back and forth every day, covering a distance of six miles. I had to do it only in between the performance of various works on the farm. In addition, he did not participate in many activities held at the college, since he did not have the time or appropriate clothes: he only had one good suit. He tried to get into the football team, but the coach did not accept him, citing his low weight. He could develop an inferiority complex, but his mother, who understood this, advised him to take part in a discussion circle, where, after several attempts, he was accepted. This event in the autumn of 1906, when he was a student of the penultimate course, turned out to be a turning point in his life.

Speaking in the circle really helped to gain the necessary confidence in one's own strength, to get the necessary practice in oratory and to succeed in all disciplines related to it. During the year of classes, Dale won all the top awards in public speaking competitions. In the course of his work, Carnegie gradually developed a unique system for teaching communication skills. This system was so unique that he decided to copyright it by publishing several booklets included in the books "Public Speaking: A Practical Course for Business Men" and "Public Speaking and Influencing Men in Business", 1926. In the course of Carnegie's work collaborated with Loweolm Thomas and later published their joint work - "Little Known Facts About Well Known People", 1934. Teaching, lectures and journalism bring him not only the first popularity, but also allows him to form his own system of teaching communication skills, including the basic rules of relationships between people . He is persistently engaged in research in this area, as a result of his system turned out to be so unique that he decides to copyright it. Carnegie publishes several pamphlets that were initially read avidly by his listeners.

Since 1911, he began to teach rhetoric and stage skills on his own, soon organizing own school. At the same time, he travels around the country with popular lectures and publishes essays on various topics. On October 22, 1912, he began lecturing with his first group, organized at the Young Men's Christian Association (YMAL), located on 125th Street in Upper Manhattan. A few months later, his course became so popular that instead of the usual rate of two dollars per evening, the directorate of HAML began to pay him thirty dollars. Hearing about the success of a young teacher from New York, his course began to be included in adult education programs at HAML centers in neighboring cities. Following this, other professional clubs began to turn to Carnegie with a similar request.

In 1933, Simon & Schuster General Manager Leon Shimkin attended his author's course in Larchmont, New York. He was impressed not only by the aspects of the course related oratory, but also contained in it the principles of relationships between people. Believing that a book on this topic would be in great demand, he suggested that Carnegie systematize all the materials he presented to his listeners and arrange them in the form of a book. On November 12, 1936, his most famous book, How to Win Friends and Influence People, was published - an optimistic collection practical advice and life stories under the common slogan "Believe that you will succeed - and you will achieve it." Like previous editions, this book did not reveal any completely new things unknown about human nature, but it contained concise and at the same time succinct advice on how to behave better in order to win the interest and sympathy of others. He convinced readers that everyone and everyone can like it, the main thing is to present yourself well to the interlocutor. In less than a year, more than a million copies of the book were sold (during the life of the author, more than 5 million copies were sold in the USA alone). Since then it has been published in many languages of the world. For ten years, the book was on the New York Times bestseller lists, which is still an absolute record.

The big secret of the art of dealing with people. There is only one way in the world to get someone to do something. Have you ever thought about this? Yes, only one way. And it is to make the other person want to do it. Remember: there is no other way.

Of course, you can force a man to give you his watch at gunpoint. You can force an employee to work by threatening to fire him if he refuses. You can force a child to do what you want with a whip or a threat. However, these crude methods are fraught with very undesirable consequences.

The only way the way I can induce you to do something is to give you what you want.

What do you want? The famous Viennese scientist Dr. Sigmund Freud, who is one of the most prominent psychologists of the 20th century, says that two motives underlie all our actions - sexual attraction and the desire to become great. The most insightful American philosopher, Professor John Dewey, puts it in slightly different words. He argues that the deepest desire inherent in human nature is "the desire to be significant." Remember this expression: "the desire to be significant." This is significant. You will read a lot about it in this book.

So what do you want? Not so much, but the little that you really desire, you pursue with sheer perseverance. Almost every normal adult wants: 1) health and life; 2) food; 3) sleep; 4) money and things that can be purchased with money; 5) life in the afterlife; 6) sexual satisfaction; 7) the well-being of their children; 8) consciousness of one's own importance. Almost all of these desires are satisfied - all but one. One desire, almost as strong and powerful as the desire for food and sleep, rarely comes true. This is what Freud calls "the desire to be great" and Dewey calls "the desire to become great."

Nothing else hits a person's ambition so hard as criticism from superiors. I never criticize anyone. I believe in the effectiveness of encouraging a person at work. Therefore, I really want to praise people, and I can’t stand scolding them. If I like something, then I am sincere in my assessment and generous in praise.

In manipulative communication, the partner is perceived not as an integral unique personality, but as a carrier of certain properties and qualities “necessary” for the manipulator. However, the person who uses this type of relationship with others often ends up being the victim of their own manipulation. He also begins to perceive himself fragmentarily, switching to stereotypical forms of behavior, guided by false motives and goals, losing the core of his own life. As noted Everett Shostrom- one of the leading critics of the "Carnegian" approach to communication, the manipulator is characterized by deceit and primitive feelings, apathy for life, a state of boredom, excessive self-control, cynicism and distrust of oneself and others. One of the most famous works of the author is Anti-Carnegie, or Manipulator, which contains helpful tips how to recognize manipulative communication and resist it. In general, the professions of a teacher and a psychologist can be attributed to the most prone to manipulative deformation. For example, in the learning process there is always an element of manipulation (to make the lesson more interesting, to motivate students, to attract attention). This often leads to the formation in professional teachers of a stable personal attitude towards explanation, learning, and proof.

Dialogical communication- this is an equal subject-subject interaction, aimed at mutual knowledge, self-knowledge of partners in communication. In the case of dialogic communication, an installation for equality is realized. It is possible only if a number of relationship rules: 1. communication on the principle of "here and now"; 2. the use of non-judgmental perception of the partner's personality, a priori attitude to trust in his intentions; 3. perception of the partner as an equal, having the right to their own opinions and decisions; 4. the content of communication should include problems and unresolved issues (problematization of the content of communication); 5. You should personify communication, that is, conduct it on your own behalf (without reference to the opinions of authorities), present your true feelings and desires.

Dialogue communication allows to achieve a deeper mutual understanding, self-disclosure of partners, creates conditions for mutual personal growth.

One type of communication is pedagogical communication. It has both common features and characteristics of this form of interaction, as well as specific features associated with the content of the educational process.

Pedagogical communication- this is a purposeful, specially organized interaction between a teacher and a pupil, during which there is an exchange of educational knowledge, perception and knowledge of each other, development and mutual influence. Pedagogical communication performs a number of specific functions. Among them:

Cognitive (transferring knowledge to students);

Exchange of information (selection and transfer of the information that is needed);

Organizational (organization of students' activities);

Regulatory (establishment various forms and means of control, influence to maintain or change behavior);

Expressive (understanding the experiences and emotional state of students), etc. The issue of pedagogical communication is considered in more detail in the course of developmental and pedagogical psychology.

1. Communication as a socio-psychological phenomenon. Communication functions.

2. Types of communication.

3. Characteristics of the communicative side of communication.

4. Characteristics of the interactive side of communication.

5. Characteristics of the perceptual side of communication.

1. Communication as a socio-psychological phenomenon. Communication functions.

The concept of "communication" refers to the number of interdisciplinary categories. It is studied by philosophy, psychology, sociology, and pedagogy. These sciences consider communication as one of the types of human activity that provides other types of activity (play, work, educational activities). Communication is also a social process, since it serves group (collective) activities and implements social relations. Often, communication is reduced only to communication - the transfer, exchange of information through language or other sign means.

Modern psychological and pedagogical science uses various definitions of the concept of "communication". Here are just a few of them:

2. Communication- a complex, multifaceted process of establishing and developing contacts between people, generated by the need for joint activities and including the exchange of information, the development of a unified interaction strategy, the perception and understanding of another person.

4. Communication- the interaction of two or more people, consisting in the exchange between them of information of a cognitive or affective-evaluative nature.

5. Under communication refers to external, observable behavior in which interpersonal relationships are actualized and manifested (Ya. L. Kolominsky).

Robert Semenovich Nemov identifies a series of aspects: content, target And facilities.

Structure of communication. Traditionally, in the structure of communication, researchers distinguish three interconnected aspects of communication – communicative side of communication(information exchange between subjects), interactive side of communication(influencing the behavior, attitudes, opinions of interlocutors in the course of communication, building a common interaction strategy), perceptual side of communication(perception, study, establishment of mutual understanding, evaluation of each other by communication partners) (G. M. Andreeva).

B. D. Parygin offers a more detailed structure communication:

Subjects of communication;

Means of communication;

Needs, motivation and goals of communication;

Ways of interaction, mutual influence and reflection of influences in the process of communication;

Communication results.

A. A. Brudny identifies the following functions communication:

instrumental necessary for the exchange of information in the process of management and joint work;

syndicated which finds its expression in the cohesion of small and large groups;

translational necessary for training, transfer of knowledge, methods of activity, evaluation criteria;

self-expression function focused on finding and achieving mutual understanding.

R. S. Nemov believes that, according to its purpose, communication is multifunctional. Therefore, he highlights the following functions communication:

1. pragmatic function. It is implemented by the interaction of people in the process of joint activities.

4. The function of organizing and maintaining interpersonal relationships. Communication contributes to the organization and maintenance of interpersonal relationships.

5. intrapersonal function. This function is realized in a person's communication with himself (through internal or external speech) and contributes to the development of reflection.

After studying this chapter, the student should:

know the psychological meaning of the concept of "communication";
be able to describe communication as a specific psychological phenomenon, distinct from behavior and individual activities;
own some methods of predicting and preventing conflict situations in communication.

Communication as a psychological phenomenon

More than 100 years of research in the field of experimental general psychology led scientists to the idea of creating a new branch of science that would study communication of people. This was due to a number of reasons. Firstly, mental processes, mental properties and states manifest themselves differently in different life situations, but especially in those that are accompanied by communication - both direct, in particular in small social groups, and indirect, for example, when perceiving advertising. Secondly, psychologists drew attention to the possibility of an empirical study of social phenomena that require a deep psychological analysis, in particular, interpersonal assessments and comparisons, the behavior of people in groups, consumer behavior, etc. Thirdly, many related sciences, such as economics, sociology , political science, history, etc., demanded from psychologists to explain why it is in society that certain phenomena occur that do not find answers within the framework of general psychology, but clearly have a psychological nature. For example, questions have been raised about how stock market panics or ethnic and religious conflicts arise.

And finally, fourthly, some scientists have realized the fact that in the process of communication certain objects and phenomena begin to acquire special properties for people that they did not previously possess. It was shown that some properties of objects that play an important role in people's lives do not exist in reality, but are manifested only in social conditions, with direct or indirect communication. In particular, such a representation is largely reflected in the concepts theories of symbolic interactionism George Herbert Mead, a representative of the Chicago School of Sociology (Fig. 9.1). These properties are of a symbolic nature: some people feel, perceive and appreciate them, but others absolutely do not perceive and do not appreciate them. For example, it was noticed that products of creative activity have similar properties. Sometimes they even become "overvalued" for certain groups people, and very often, regardless of the material costs that were required to create them. This is how the idea of a socio-psychological phenomenon appeared, which was called supersensible properties .

Rice. 9.1.

Approximately for these (and some other) reasons arose new industry Sciences - social Psychology. The objects of its study were various types, types, forms and conditions of communication and activity, as well as communication phenomena that affect the mental processes, properties and states of people.

In an effort to understand what social psychology does, one should first of all pay attention to the fact that people communicate with each other in different ways: there are people who are very sociable (extroverts), and there are unsociable, closed ones (introverts). The second thing that should attract our attention is that in the process of communication people have an impact, influence each other and change their behavior depending on the nature of communication, the degree and forms of such influence. But the most interesting thing is, probably, that the communication of people is capable of generating something new in nature, something that has never existed before. Sometimes it may seem that this new appears as if from nothing, but in fact its source is precisely the communication of people with each other. This idea arose as a result of a theoretical analysis of the phenomenon social in a number of socio-psychological theories.

In particular, in accordance with the theory of J. G. Mead, a person is a social product of interpersonal interaction. He assumes certain roles under the influence of other people ("generalized other"). In the process of socialization, a reflective social "I" those. its origin is entirely social. The main thing in the social "I" is the ability to become an object introspection , resulting in an external social control transforms into self-control. For a deep description of this phenomenon, Mead used the concept of "self". This property is not innate, its origin is also purely social. To communicate effectively, a person must understand the intentions of other people. This is done through a process that Mead called taking on a role. The process of accepting a role involves the individual using his imagination to put himself in the place of the person with whom he communicates. The key concept of symbolic interactionism is interaction (interaction ). The basis for interaction is Team work, but the exchange of characters.

J. G. Mead, as well as J. Habermas, X. Blumer and others, developing the views of the sociologist Georg Simmel, argued that society is built on the exchange of gestures and symbols through language. It was argued that in order to understand people's behavior, knowledge of the internal symbolic meaning, a certain language code, which is understandable only to the participants in the interaction, is necessary. In the process of socialization, the decisive role is played by the so-called significant others - people whose judgments and actions are the standard in the formation of their own judgments, opinions and human behavior.

The biography of J. G. Mead is quite remarkable. He was born in the USA, studied at Harvard University, as well as in Leipzig and Berlin, where he got acquainted with the works of W. Wundt. Mead never had a degree, but taught social psychology in the US at the University of Chicago. Having no scientific status, he did not publish any of his books, but he had a great influence. J. G. Mead's lectures were collected and published after his death.