Oil is the breadwinner, pride and main reference point economic development in our country. This year, the Mangistau region has many reasons for celebrations. For example, this year marks 50 years since the formation of the Mangyshlakneftegazstroy trust (January 1, 1965), 50 years since the creation of the management of the Mangyshlak oil and gas pipelines (June 16, 1965). Fifty years have passed (May 19-20, 1965) when the first All-Union scientific and practical conference of oil workers and oil explorers on the development of the resources of the Mangyshlak Peninsula took place in the city of Shevchenko. On July 10, 1965, the first batch of Uzen oil was shipped and sent to railway Uzen - Mangyshlak - Makat. The Uzen-Zhetybai-Shevchenko oil pipeline with a length of 140 km was put into operation, which made it possible to transport Mangistau oil through the Aktau seaport. An asphalt highway Uzen-Aktau was built. Today on the pages of "OM" we will recall the wanderers of the history of the distant 60s, namely, we will tell how the management of the Mangyshlak oil and gas pipelines was created 50 years ago.
"Black gold", "blood of the earth", "engine of modern industry" - as soon as it is not called! The role of oil in the development of mankind is truly enormous. Modern industry is unthinkable without hydrocarbons. Oil production for Kazakhstan, as well as for many countries, is one of the priority and profitable industries.
The birth of a new oil-producing region is associated with the discovery in 1961 of the Uzen and Zhetybay fields. The first information about oil shows in Mangyshlak is associated with the name of G. Karelin (1801-1872). Further study of the wealth of Mangyshlak was carried out by M. I. Ivanin (1846), A. E. Alekseev (1832), A. I. Antipov (1851), N. I. Andrusov (1887), M V. Bayarunos (1887), G. A. Nasibyants (1899-1901). V.V. Mokrinsky (1920), compiled the first geological map of Mangyshlak. In the 30s. S.N. Alekseychik compiled the first schematic map of the oil potential of Mangyshlak. In 1947-1957. in the study of the bowels of Mangyshlak, the role of scientists from the Leningrad Institute VNIGRI A. A. Saveliev, N. F. Kuznetsov, oil explorers B. F. Dyakov, N. N. Cherepanov is invaluable. 1961, when the first oil gushers were obtained at the Zhetybay and Uzen fields, became the historical date of the birth of a new oil producing region. It became a significant event in more than a century of history. oil industry Kazakhstan.
The development of the oil industry in Kazakhstan predetermined the creation of a wide network of pipeline systems. During this period, a significant amount of exploration work in the central part of the Caspian Sea necessitated the construction of oil pipelines.
It is known that the date of starting the history of the development of pipeline transport in Kazakhstan was 1935, when the construction of the first oil pipeline Caspian - Orsk with a length of 830 km was completed. Since then, the pipeline system of Kazakhstan has developed from separate disparate pipelines into a single extended and closed system of main oil pipelines, which today ensures uninterrupted supplies of domestic raw materials to the country's domestic market and for export. And this large-scale, technologically advanced and complex system of oil pipelines is managed by the national operator of the main oil pipeline KazTransOil JSC.
However, the pipeline transportation of oil was intensively developed in the republic in 1960-1970 in connection with the development of the deposits of the Mangyshlak Peninsula - Uzen and Zhetybay. The rapid growth of oil production set the task of transporting black gold through the main oil pipelines to the country's refineries. To organize and ensure the transportation of Mangyshlak oil, on June 16, 1965, the Mangystau Oil Pipeline Administration (MNU) was established as the Mangyshlak Administration of Main Oil and Gas Product Pipelines (UMNGPP) under the amalgamation of Mangyshlakneft. It is one of the oldest and very important departments oil transportation company of the Western branch of KazTransOil JSC.
As you know, the oil of Kazakhstan fields is unique and differs in specific features. Thus, Tengiz oil is characterized by a significant content of mercaptans (0.05%); Kumkol oil is light but highly paraffinic (12-16%); Dossor oil is characterized by a high yield of distillate oils (40-60.5%) for oil; the viscosity of Karazhanbas oil is very high (150 mm2/s), which is ten times higher than the viscosity of Mangistau oil. In this regard, science and practice faced the need to solve complex problems of its transportation.
For example, to ensure the delivery of Uzen oil to the country's refineries, the Uzen-Zhetybay-Shevchenko gas pipeline, which was under construction, was used, with a length of 141.6 km and a pipe diameter of 520 mm. This made it possible on July 10, 1965 to send the first echelon with Mangyshlak oil to the Guryev Oil Refinery, and on October 10, 1966, to send the first tanker of the Caspian Shipping Company "Jabrail" from the seaport of Aktau to the Volgograd Oil Refinery. In 1966, 1301.6 thousand tons of oil were shipped.
The determining factors in choosing one or another method of transporting oil are: the pour point, the temperature dependence of the viscosity and density of the oil. Under the conditions of Mangyshlak, the method of track heating turned out to be the most effective. For this, F-112 furnaces were installed on the Uzen-Shevchenko (Aktau) oil pipeline. In October 1966, the pumping of hot oil through the Uzen-Zhetybay-Shevchenko oil pipeline was mastered. One of the remarkable features of the route of this oil pipeline is that at the Zhetybay-Shevchenko section it crosses the Karagie depression with a mark of 132 m below the ocean level, 40 km long and 10 km wide. The formation of the depression is associated with the processes of leaching of salt-bearing rocks, with subsidence and karst processes that took place on the coast of the Caspian Sea.
On August 18, 1967, in connection with the rapid growth of oil production at Mangyshlak, a decree of the USSR Government was issued on the construction in 1967-1970. main oil pipeline Uzen - Kulsary - Guryev - Kuibyshev with a length of 1232 km instead of the Mangyshlak - Privolzhsk - Ukraine oil pipeline previously provided for by the Decree of the Council of Ministers of the USSR of October 11, 1966. The first stage of the Uzen-Guryev oil pipeline was put into operation in August 1969. Eight heating stations with G9P02V furnaces were installed along its route. The commissioning of the first stage made it possible to almost five times increase the volume of hydrocarbons pumped compared to 1966.
Between 1962 and 1970 V.V. Sharonov.
On June 2, 1971, on the basis of the order of the Minister of Oil Industry of the USSR, the Southern Directorate of Main Oil and Gas Pipelines was relocated from Guryev to Shevchenko. In winter, it was not easy at the Uzen fields. Oil froze, clogged wells with blood clots, they were pierced with hot water, steam, and other methods ... But this did not fundamentally solve the problem. The commissioning of a new powerful "hot" oil pipeline made it possible to solve the problem of transporting the Mangyshlak highly paraffinic and highly solidifying oil at thirty degrees above zero. The construction of this oil pipeline made it possible to raise the level of oil production at Mangyshlak from 1.5 million tons in 1966 to 15 million tons in 1975.
In order to pump Mangyshlak oil to the Guryev Oil Refinery in 1969, an oil pipeline Shleif (1200 km) - Guryev Oil Refinery with a length of 26 km with a pipe diameter of 426 mm was built, throughput 3.5 million tons of oil per year.
Remembering the historical dates, we remind our readers that on January 1, 1965, the Mangyshlakneftegazstroy trust began to equip new oilfield facilities and build oilmen's settlements, which put into operation a complex of facilities for collecting and transporting oil, laid hundreds of kilometers inside field communications, maintenance facilities formation pressure, group installations, power supply systems. The builders themselves lived in trailers, built prefabricated houses, barrack-type hostels.
AT short time builders and oil workers completed a huge amount of work on the arrangement of the oil field, which made it possible to begin the extraction and transportation of "black gold" to factories. In 1967, the Zhetybay field was commissioned, and in 1970, the Tenge gas condensate field. Initially planned as a settlement of oil workers the size of one Uzen microdistrict, it gradually turned into a city with several thousand inhabitants.
The modern Mangistau oil pipeline department is an important and large production division Western branch of KazTransOil JSC. MNU ensures the reception, transportation and shipment of crude oil, as well as the supply of fresh water to consumers in the Mangistau and Atyrau regions through the Astrakhan-Mangyshlak water pipeline. It discharges oil from railway tanks at the Aktau HOPS, as well as pours oil into tankers in the port of Aktau. The current generation of oil pipeline workers worthily continues the work of their predecessors, thanks to which KazTransOil JSC successfully achieves its goals today.
Black gold is a metal that has been gaining popularity in recent years. Jewels of this shade are in demand. Jewelers claim that blackened gold is a godsend for jewelry designers. It has a lot of positive qualities and, despite the cost, always finds buyers.
Black gold ring with stones
How are they received?
Colors can be achieved in three ways:
- Chromium, cobalt and sulfur are added to the ligature.
- Plated with rhodium.
- with amorphous carbon.
Chromium and cobalt are present in the alloy at a rate of 25%, so jewelry of this color has a standard of 750. If this is not enough, then the alloy is processed, it undergoes oxidation at a high temperature.
Characteristics of the components of the ligature:
- Cobalt is an element of a silvery hue with a yellowish or bluish tint. Durable, oxidizes at temperatures above 300 degrees.
- Chromium is a solid element that has a blue or black tint. Amenable to mechanical action.
- Sulfur acts as an additional material, it is able to form compounds with carbon and other elements.
By adding these materials to the ligature, the alloy becomes durable, practical and acquires the desired shade.
Earrings in white and black gold
Jewels are rhodium-plated - this process is called rhodium plating. As a result, a film is formed on the surface of the product, which protects against damage and gives color. Rhodium plating is a complex process; the metal surface can be coated not only with rhodium, but also with amorphous carbon.
When giving birth, the master can control the process of changing the color of the decoration. The product gets a shade from gray to black. Today, laser technology is used to make such jewelry.
Jewelry Benefits
The rhodium process gives the ligature:
- Strength.
- Wear resistance.
- Color.
The blackening of gold gives the metal strength and ductility. Even products of a high standard retain all the qualities of the yellow metal and at the same time have good strength.
Rhodium plated for increased durability. As a result, the jewel does not oxidize, the film that covers the surface of the product protects it from factors external environment and reagents.
Panther ring in white and black gold
Color is one of the virtues; along with white, rose and yellow gold, black retains its uniqueness through its hue. Jewelry of this color is suitable for business suits and luxurious outfits.
In addition, the metal is combined with such stones:
- opal;
- emerald;
- ruby;
- diamond.
Jewelers were wary of black metal, the reason for this was the stones with which they encrust jewelry. If platinum and gold hide the flaws of the stones, then black gold can flaunt them. Therefore, for a long time, products were decorated only with black diamonds.
But in recent times you can find jewelry inlaid with other stones on the shelves of stores, it turned out that this combination is no worse. Stones not only delight with brilliance, but also combine in texture with metal.
But a wedding ring made of such metal is considered a classic. It represents the direction of minimalism and does not require inlay with stones.
Jewelry made of black gold is complemented by one stone, this is quite enough.
Shade range
The jewels have several shades, from light gray, brown to dark, black, which is obtained in various ways.
Jewelers claim that purple, blue and brown gold items are popular today, but jewelry will darken over time.
The shade of the product depends on what kind of processing the metal has undergone. Intense black color can only be achieved by processing the surface of the jewelry with a laser.
When chromium, cobalt or sulfur is added to the ligature, the shade of the metal changes, it becomes gray or brown.
The most popular is the rhodium plating process, when a film of the desired shade is formed on the surface of the product. In addition to color, the decoration acquires strength and resistance to environmental factors. It does not oxidize and is easy to clean. But the film is erased over time, it can also be damaged mechanically.
What is black gold jewelry? These are products that are durable, resistant to oxidation, combined with various stones. Today, not only jewelry is popular, but also watches made from this alloy. They are of high value and, along with rings and bracelets, adorn the hands of men.
The combination of clockwork and jewelry is the choice of strong and self-confident personalities. The disadvantage of such accessories can be considered their cost, which does not differ in availability.
The Yuzhno-Khylchuyuyskoye field - one of the largest in the north of the Timan-Pechora basin - was discovered in 1981. More than 500 million barrels. - These are its oil reserves as of January 1, 2007. According to the classification of reserves, such a deposit is classified as a large one.
According to Lukoil's plans, the Yuzhnoye Khylchuyu project will be launched in early 2008, and by 2009 the field will reach a production level of 7.5 million barrels. per year (more than 150 thousand barrels per day). A total of 90 wells are planned to be drilled. In the first half of 2007, as part of a joint venture with the American ConocoPhillips, where Russian company owns 70%, and the partner - 30%, Lukoil has already put the Yuzhno-Khylchuyuskoye field into development.
Lukoil and CononoPhillips intend to invest about $2 billion. Black gold will be transported via the South Khylchuyu-Varandey oil pipeline, and then for export through the Varandey terminal with a capacity of up to 16 million tons per year. This multi-level project involves the construction of a high-pressure gas pipeline, an energy center at the base oil gathering point, as well as transformer substations and power lines.
The tender for the construction of power plants for the South Khylchuyu - Varandey oil pipeline was won by the EFESk company, which already has a successful experience of cooperation with oil and gas companies. Thus, in Saratov, the enterprise built a line and a substation for gas workers, in Vysotsk, Leningrad Region, by order of OAO Lukoil, it commissioned a substation at the terminal for transshipment of petroleum products.
In the harsh conditions of the Far North, not every company is able to take on such work, because materials and equipment can only be delivered here by the "winter road", and you have to work in extremely adverse weather conditions, in the permafrost area.
Despite this, "EFESk" provides a decent quality and speed of work. Oil and gas workers have strict requirements, the customer's engineering staff is constantly present at the facilities, monitoring the impeccable implementation of technical standards. The customer of work at the substations of the Yuzhnoye Khylchuyu - Varandey oil pipeline is Naryanmarneftegaz LLC.
EFESk specialists are laying a 220 kV transmission line and installing two substations 220 kV-35 kV and 220 kV-10 kV. On the this moment everything is done cable glands, the most modern equipment that meets all international standards is installed on the energy devices of the oil pipeline. Completion is scheduled for February 2008.
The company owns a large fleet of vehicles. After signing a contract with OAO Lukoil, EFESk purchased new equipment for about 300 million rubles.
Powerful technical and personnel potential of CJSC "EFESk" allows solving the most complex technical and organizational tasks and handing over to the customer on time the objects made with impeccable quality. And work on the South Khylchuyu-Varandey oil pipeline is far from the only example.
During the construction of the North European gas pipeline, EFESk provides power supply to gas pumping stations and other technological facilities. It would seem that, compared with the construction of a gas pipeline, the task of laying power cables fades into the background, but, nevertheless, this facility is very significant for the company.
Today CJSC EFESk operates at the following facilities: RUSAL-UK aluminum production plant (reconstruction of the 500 kV Taishet substation); construction of the 500 kV Taishet-2 substation and 500 kV overhead lines, the customer is OAO Irkutskenergo; Baltic pipeline system (construction of 110 kV Nevskaya substation, 110 kV Kirishi substation and 110 kV overhead line), customer NK Transneft; gas pipelines "St. Petersburg - Yukki - state border" (construction of a 10 kV overhead line) and "Pochinki - Izobilnoye - Severostavropolskoye UGSF", Saratov (construction of a 10 kV overhead line), customer "Lentransgaz"; oil terminal in Vysotsk (construction of SS 110 kV "Terminal" and overhead line 110 kV), customer RPK "Lukoil-II"; power facilities in the Leningrad region (construction of power facilities under the program of reconstruction and development of new traction substations and 35 110 kV overhead lines), customer JSC Russian Railways.
The new economic strategy of Russia is focused on sustainable development energy capacities of the country and provides for significant investments in the design and construction of power grid facilities for power supply of modernly equipped industrial, agricultural and household complexes. As is known, one of the objectives of the "Energy Strategy for the period up to 2020" is the formation of conditions for the safe, efficient and sustainable functioning of the energy sector. Based on possible geopolitical situations and scenarios of the country's socio-economic development, the "Energy Strategy" determines the trajectories and proportions of development of all energy sectors that are effective from the standpoint of the national economy: from geological exploration and extraction (production) of primary energy resources to the use of energy carriers, inclusive, financial and economic conditions and institutional transformations in the economic sphere, the functions and methods of public administration and the regulatory environment that needs to be formed for effective development power industry, specific tasks for government bodies to create conditions for the implementation of the plans, a system of control and operational adjustment (monitoring) of the implementation of the "Energy Strategy of Russia". The "Energy Strategy" focuses on the forecast of the country's long-term development with a growth rate of 5-6% per year and an increase in GDP over the period under review by at least 3 times.
The most effective participation in the implementation of large-scale state tasks can only be those enterprises whose management provides them with a leading position in the country's energy complex. CJSC "EFESk" is one of such companies.
The Middle Bronze Age is associated with the second phase in the development of the CMP and is dated in the system of traditional chronology to the last third of the 3rd - the first third of the 2nd millennium BC. However, the study of materials from different regions reveals the "floating" nature of its final boundary. For example, in Transcaucasia and the North-Western Black Sea region, it completes its development no earlier than the middle of the 2nd millennium BC.
In the Middle Bronze Age, the territory of the province noticeably expanded to the north. The southern limits of the CMP remain the same.
At the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age, the traditional set of leading types of tools and weapons was preserved in the central centers of the CMP: socketed axes, cutting knives, awls, chisels with an emphasis, and flat adzes. By the end of the Middle Bronze Age, the variety of forms of implements noticeably increases, especially in the types of socketed axes. This is due to the emergence of new technologies for their casting. Open double-leaf casting molds with an insert core are being replaced by half-closed and closed double-leaf molds, which are filled with metal through a narrow slot or a special channel (gate). The closed form made it possible to obtain very complex axes in configuration. The variability of tools increases primarily due to changes in the shape of their bushings and butts. The lowering of the butt of the ax in relation to its body leads to the appearance of tools of the "hanging" type. In addition, the sleeve is often lengthened compared to the wedge and receives a kind of tubular completion.
The beginning of the use of tin bronzes within the CMP is associated with the casting of axes of complex varieties (hanging butt, tubular butt). The latter, along with multicomponent alloys based on copper with additions of tin, arsenic and antimony, are spreading in the Caucasus, partly in Asia Minor and the Balkan-Carpathian region, coexisting here with arsenic bronzes. Copper-arsenic alloys have retained their dominant position in the steppe zone of the Northern Black Sea region, and on Southern Urals, in the Middle and Lower Volga regions, products made of pure copper turned out to be extremely tenacious.
The northern part of the Circumpontian metallurgical province in the Middle Bronze Age. Archaeological cultures, monuments and centers of metal production:
1 - culture of Troy II-III (center of metallurgy); 2 - monuments of Central Anatolia (center of metallurgy); 3 - North Bulgarian focus; 4 - Carpatho-Transylvanian focus; 5 - Middle Danubian focus; 6 - catacomb cultures (two centers of metalworking); 7 - North Caucasian cultural region (two centers of metalworking); 8 - Trialet culture (center of metallurgy); 9 - Poltavka culture (center of metallurgy); 10 - Fatyanovo-Balanovo culture (center of metallurgy); 11 - borders of the CMP; 12 - proposed borders of the CMP
The introduction of tin bronze into the production was an important technical achievement. These bronzes were distinguished by excellent casting properties combined with high ductility. They had clear advantages over arsenic bronzes, since they did not change the original
composition when heated and therefore turned out to be stronger and harder than them. In addition, they were not toxic, which predetermined the main reason for their popularity.
Another important event of the second phase of the development of the CMP was the spasmodic growth in the scale of mining and metallurgical production. Its production in comparison with the early Bronze Age increases by an average of 4-5 times.
These changes were accompanied by significant ethno-cultural changes. In the Northern Black Sea region, the monuments of the Yamnaya community, the Usatov culture, are disappearing. On their former territory, an array of cultures of the catacomb cultural and historical community is being formed. In the foothills North Caucasus the bright Maikop monuments are being replaced by modest burial grounds left by the population of the North Caucasian community. A whole group of new cultures is also emerging in the Carpathian basin. However, despite cultural transformation, economic and social development in the northern zone of the CMP during the Middle Bronze Age continues the traditions that emerged in the previous period.
Diagnosing forms of products of the Middle Bronze Age within the Circumpontian metallurgical province:
1, 2 - closed casting molds for the manufacture of axes; 3- an ax with a long tubular sleeve; 4, 5, 12, 24, 25 - double-edged knives-daggers; 6, 13-18 - socketed axes; 7 - socketed chisel; 8 - awl; 9, 10 - tesla; 11 - hook; 19 - spear tip; 20-23 - jewelry
A completely different picture is observed in the southern zone of the province. Here, to replace cultures with a relatively undifferentiated social structure“socially ranked” cultures are coming, demonstrating actively ongoing processes of class formation. The “royal” graves of Aladzha and Khoroz-tepe in Central Anatolia, the richest treasures buried at the time of the death of Troy II, are a vivid evidence of this. The same phenomena are observed in Transcaucasia, where huge mounds of the Kirovkan-Trialeti type are being built, containing funeral gifts of unique richness. The restructuring of political structures can be clearly seen in the Middle Minoan period in Crete. The monumental palace buildings of Knossos, Mallia, Phaistos, astonishing richness of the tombs, temple buildings are an expression of the enormous concentration of power and wealth here. As you know, the palace period of Crete gave Europe the first civilization of the Bronze Age. Thus, in the southern zone of the CMP, a large region is outlined - the Aegean basin, Asia Minor, Transcaucasia, where sociocultural processes have acquired, at least in partial terms, a similar direction.
Let's turn to Asia Minor. As before, a powerful metallurgical center is developing in the north-west of Anatolia (in the Troad). In time, it covers the period of Troy II-III. The settlement of Troy II arose after the destruction of Troy I. Traces of some kind of catastrophe and the emergence of a new culture (Troy II) are recorded along the entire western and southwestern coast of Anatolia, even in those areas where the culture of Troy I was unknown. The cause of the catastrophe itself is unclear - whether it was caused by the military invasion of the tribes advancing from the Balkans, or major earthquake covering the entire Eastern Mediterranean. Be that as it may, the new culture has little to do with the previous one.
Bronze weapons of the time of Troy II-III:
1-5 - daggers; 6-10 - spearheads; 11, 13, 14, 16 - battle axes; 12, 15, 17 - axes
First of all, Troy II itself turns into a city surrounded by powerful stone walls, behind which were located both small buildings and a complex of palace-type structures. Among them is a huge megaron 35 m long - probably the residence of a local ruler and small megarons - possibly temple complexes. Some researchers believe that Troy II was a royal fortress in a state that included, in addition to Troad, the Gallipoli Peninsula and part of the coastal islands of the Aegean Sea.
The brilliant flourishing of bronze metallurgy in the west of Anatolia during the period of Troy II-III has a lot of evidence. Huge series of bronze weapons, tools, and ornaments appear. Daggers, battle axes, axes, scepters, spears with slits on the feathers, flat adzes, and knives with bow-shaped blades are widely represented. For the first time, not only arsenic, but also tin bronzes are used for their manufacture. The serial production of these products in Troy II-III is confirmed by the finds of many molds made of clay and stone.
Jewelry art reached a high level. In the famous 19 Trojan treasures found in late XIX in. G. Schliemann discovered about 10 thousand objects, mostly gold (vessels, earrings, temporal rings, beads, bracelets, pins, etc.). Most of them are connected with the final period of the existence of Troy II. Pottery of the Troy II-III culture is partly made on a potter's wheel and usually covered with a red facing. The forms of dishes are diverse: anthropomorphic “facial urns”, jugs, goblets with two looped handles, bowls with one or two handles, vessels in the form of animals, etc.
Another center of metallurgy operated in the Middle Bronze Age in Central Anatolia. The richest "royal" burials were found here. The most famous were the burials in the place Aladzha Heyuk near Bogazkoy. These graves looked like huge rectangular pits with large stones around the edges. Over the pits there was a rolling of wooden beams; on them lay rows of bull heads and legs - the remnants of funeral feasts. In each grave, sculptures of bulls and deer were found, decorated with gold and silver inlays. They appear to have been placed at the ends of wooden standards carried in front of the funeral litter. Each burial also contained other ritual objects, in particular, bronze openwork "solar disks" decorated around the edges with noisy pendants in the form of birds and animals. Funerary gifts include two daggers made of meteoric iron with gilded handles, diadems made of gold leaf with openwork patterns, gold brooches various shapes, bracelets, thousands of gold beads, a mass of vessels made of bronze, copper, gold and silver.
Pottery culture Troy II-III:
1, 2 - "facial urns"; 3 - jug; 4, 7 - cups; 5, 8 - bowls; 6 - askos; 9 - cover
The weapons of the buried consisted of swords, daggers, axes with a serrated working edge, and spearheads. Similar forms of products are also known in other sites of Central and Pontic Anatolia (Khoroz-tepe, Makhmatlar). The diversity and abundance of objects made of precious metals discovered in them speaks of a far-reaching process of property and social stratification of the local society.
We find similar phenomena in Transcaucasia, where the Trialet culture developed in the Middle Bronze Age. In the history of the Trialeti culture, two chronological stages are outlined: the early, Bedeno, and the late, Kirov-Trialeti. Vedeno monuments are known only in Southern Georgia. These are mounds with large mounds, sometimes with stone structures. They contain burials on wooden beds, accompanied by dishes with a black-polished surface, items made of precious metals, wagons, sacrificial animals, human sacrifices (Bedeni, Tsnore, Khovle, etc.). The black-polished vessels with different geometric patterns are similar to the pottery of the preceding Kuro-Araks culture, which apparently played a decisive role in the formation of the Early Trialeti complexes. The metal of the Bedene time also has something in common with the Kura-Araks. In addition to the forms of items traditional for the CMP, in the Beden complexes there are spearheads with faceted handles, typical of the Kura-Araks antiquities. Complicated recipe bronzes. In addition to copper alloys with arsenic, tin bronzes are used, as well as multicomponent alloys with the addition of arsenic, antimony and zinc. Obviously, at this time, the exploitation of polymetallic deposits of the Lesser Caucasus begins.
The only settlement of the Beden stage is Berikldeebi near Gori, where the remains of dwellings built of stones, rectangular at the base, have been studied. Around them - ceramics, household items and worship.
The late stage, or the period of the “blooming pore” of the Trialeti culture, is marked by a noticeable expansion of its territory up to the Greater Caucasus in the north and the right bank of the Araks, lakes Van and Urmia in the south. The burials of the tribal nobility have been studied best of all. They are covered with huge mounds with stone mounds. Under them are adobe platforms, extensive grave pits or huge burial halls with walls made of stones and covered with log rolling. The deceased was placed in the center of these structures on a wooden bed, sometimes on a chariot. There are both inhumation and cremation. Luxurious black-polished or red with black painting clay vessels stood along the edges or walls of the graves. The basis of the painting was wavy lines (“water pattern”) and figurines of birds. Among the grave goods are stone arrows, maces, bronze cauldrons, silver and gold jewelry. Vessels made of precious metals were especially famous. Thus, in one of the mounds of Trialeti in southern Georgia, a silver bucket with a chased depiction of hunting scenes and a gold goblet inlaid with carnelian and turquoise inlays were found. A silver goblet from another burial mound is decorated with belts of chased designs: in the upper one there is a procession of people to the deity sitting on a throne, in the lower one - a line of marching deer. The style of the images is undoubtedly connected with the Hittite tradition. Precious vessels and objects of the Trialet type are now known in many places in Transcaucasia - in Uzunlar (Azerbaijan), in the town of Karashamb and in Kirovakan (Armenia), etc.
At the late stage of the Trialeti culture, a number of forms, common for the second phase of the development of the CMP, are preserved: shank knives, awls with an emphasis, double-edged daggers, socketed axes, forged spearheads. The use of complex copper-based alloys continues: with arsenic, tin, and sometimes antimony.
Items from the mounds of Trialeti in southern Georgia:
1 - golden goblet with carnelian and turquoise inserts; 2 - silver goblet with chased images; 3 - earthenware vessel with black painting on white background; 4 - silver bucket
The Transcaucasian (Trialeti) metallurgical center was closely connected with the North Caucasian ones, which replaced the Maikop one. One of them functioned in the Kuban region, the other - in the Terek basin. The cultural affiliation of the workshops operating here has not yet been finally determined. A striking feature of the North Caucasian hearths is their products, which consisted not only of tools and weapons, but also of a magnificent set of ornaments. A significant part of them was cast on a wax model from highly alloyed arsenic bronzes (up to 20-30% arsenic).
Bronze decorations of the Terek hearth:
1-3, 5, 6, 13 - pins; 4- bell pendant; 7, 8, 14 - medallions; 9- temporal ring;
10- bracelet; 11, 12 - plaques
Earrings, temporal rings, bracelets, costume details (threads, pendants, plaques, pins) were distinguished by a variety of forms. Often they are covered with a relief cord or geometric ornament.
Under the strong Caucasian influence, metalworking developed among the population of Ciscaucasia and the Northern Black Sea region, where catacomb tribes lived in the Middle Bronze Age. Their monuments are usually considered within the framework of the catacomb cultural and historical community, dating back to the last third of the 3rd - the first third of the 2nd millennium BC. Within the community, more than ten independent catacomb cultures are distinguished. The differences between them are manifested primarily in ceramics, in some categories of funerary things, as well as in the specifics of the funeral rite. But they also have a common feature - burials in catacombs, structures of two chambers - a pit and a side niche (dromos). Along with them, there are other forms of burial practice that were inherited from the previous time.
The main source for the study of the catacomb community are numerous burial mounds. Their range in the west reaches the Prut, in the east it extends to the Volga, in the north the border enters the forest-steppe, in the south it covers the entire Ciscaucasia and the Azov-Black Sea steppe. Unlike burials, the settlements of the Catacomb tribes are extremely rare. In the steppe zone, these are seasonal camps of pastoralists along the banks of large rivers without traces of residential buildings. In the forest-steppe on the Middle Don, Seversky Donets, there are stationary settlements of the late Catacomb time.
The central place in the catacomb community is occupied by the Donetsk catacomb culture. Its monuments are confined to the basin of the middle and lower reaches of the Seversky Donets, as well as to the right bank of the Lower Don. Most of the burials are “let in” here in the barrows of the pit time. In the catacomb, the deceased was usually placed in a crouched position on his right side facing the entrance, sprinkled with red ocher, and the entrance to the dromos was covered with slabs, stones, wood or turf. The buried was accompanied by a variety of inventory. The most numerous are ceramics. These are round-sided pots with a straight neck and goblets, decorated with imprints of a cord and a comb stamp, forming circles, complex spirals, semicircular festoons, horizontal stripes, herringbone, etc. Occasionally there are incense burners - small bowls with an internal partition on a cruciform leg-stand. They could be used to burn incense.
Flint and stone items are also found in the graves: scrapers, spearheads and arrowheads, maceheads, axes-hammers, pestles, graters. But there is especially a lot of metal in them - tools and decorations that copy Caucasian samples to the details (grooved chisels, daggers, hooks with unforged bushings, medallions, pendants, beads). The close connection with the Caucasus is also confirmed by the use of imported arsenic bronzes. At the same time, the originality of the local center of metalworking is not in doubt. It manifests itself in specific form Donetsk socketed axes with a shortened wedge (Kolontaevsky type), in the presence of a series of burials of blacksmiths and casters (Prishib, Kramatorsk, etc.).
Within the limits of the catacomb community, another center of metalworking, the Manych, functioned. It is associated with the Manyn (Caucasian) culture, common in Kalmykia, the Stavropol Territory and part of the Rostov Region. Peculiar forms of knives are known here, and the burial of a foundry worker (Veselaya Roshcha Farm) is also open.
The economic models of the catacomb tribes were determined by the ecosystems of the steppe and forest-steppe zones. In the steppe, a model of mobile pastoralism of a nomadic type, based on the breeding of large and small ruminants, took root. Compared to the pit time, not only floodplain, riverine, but also watershed pastures are used. In the forest-steppe, a model of pastoral, house-based cattle breeding has spread, with a predominance of cattle and pigs in the herd. Part of the population moved to a settled way of life. Agriculture, if it existed, was of secondary importance in the local life support system.
The question of the origin of the catacomb community is still debatable. The autochthonous and migration theories of its origin are discussed. The most substantiated is the point of view according to which the Catacomb population goes back genetically to the Yamnaya population, which experienced a strong migratory impact of Ciscaucasian populations.
Products from the burials of the Donetsk Catacomb culture:
1.2 - awls; 3 - chisel with stop; 4 - hook; 5 - adze; 6-10 - knives-daggers; 11 - socketed ax; 12 - mold for casting an ax
To the north of the distribution zone of the Catacomb tribes in the Middle Bronze Age, the Fatyanovo-Balanovo cultural and historical community was formed. Its range is associated with the zone of broad-leaved forests of European Russia from the Desna in the west to the Kama and Vyatka in the east. Several large local groups of monuments stand out here. One of them - the Middle Volga - was previously identified with a special Balanovo culture, related to Fatyanovo. However, it is now becoming clear that the differences between the Fatyanovo and Balanovo sites do not go beyond the uniqueness of local variants of a single cultural and historical community.
The Fatyanovo-Balanovo sites are usually included within the vast area of the so-called Corded Ware cultures. It covered Central and part of Northern Europe and the forest zone of Eastern Europe. Numerous parallels indicate that the main connections of the Fatyanovo population go to the western and southwestern regions of this region, to the Southern Baltic, the Dnieper region, and the Carpathians. Apparently, at the turn of the III and II millennium BC. it is from here that significant groups of the population begin to move eastward, which formed the basis of the Fatyanovo-Balanovo community. Penetrating into the Central Russian forests, they occupy the territory of the Late Volosovo post-Neolithic tribes that lived here earlier. On the Volosovo settlements of the Volga-Oka interfluve, a thin cultural layer is sometimes found, which is associated with the presence of the Fatyanovites on them. However, in the area of the Balanovskaya group, stationary settlements and settlements are also known, on which the remains of residential, utility and defensive structures were unearthed.
The necropolises in the area of this community, as a rule, are barrow-free, unpaved. Under-kurgans are sporadically found only in the eastern regions, in the Middle Volga region (Atlikasy, Churachiki, etc.), where they are associated with a special Atlikasinsky group of sites.
The burial grounds are unequal in terms of the number of burials: along with small ones, very large ones are known. For example, there are more than a hundred burials in the Volosovo-Danilovsky and Balanovsky ground cemeteries on the Upper and Middle Volga.
Burials in soil necropolises, single or paired, were made in deep and large rectangular pits, the walls of which were lined with wood, and the bottom was lined with boards and birch bark. The buried were sprinkled with white lime, chalk or ocher. They were laid crouched on their side: men - on the right, women - on the left. Collective burials are known in the mounds of the Atlikasinskaya group.
Male burials (rarely for women and children) were accompanied by drilled stone axes of various shapes (some of them resemble a boat in profile), wedge-shaped flint adzes, knives with arrowheads and darts, bone points, pendants made of amber and river shells, amulets from bear and wild boar fangs.
Fatyanovskaya and Balanovskaya dishes differed, as a rule, in a spherical or turnip-shaped body, and Atlikasinskaya - bomb-shaped, with a high cylindrical neck. Ceramics of both groups were decorated with geometric zonal patterns of rhombuses, triangles, zigzags,
made with a jagged or smooth stamp, carved or incised lines.
Inventory of the Fatyanovo burial grounds:
1-3 - vessels; 4, 5 - flint arrowheads; 6 - flint knife; 7, 9 - amber pendants; 8- necklace made of bone beads; 10 - amulets from tusks of a wild boar; 11 - bone puncture; 12, 13 - stone axes; 14, 19, 20 - copper spearheads; 15 - stone wedge-shaped ax; 16 - copper socketed ax; 17 - copper pendant; 18 - copper awl; 21 - cuff bracelet; 22 - copper temporal ring
The materials of the settlements (Kubashevskoe, Vasilsurskoe, etc.) indicate that livestock farming played a leading role in the life support system. The herd was dominated by a large cattle and pigs are the main sources of meat and dairy food. Cattle breeding was supplemented by hunting, fishing and gathering.
Fatyanovtsy and Balanovtsy were the first metallurgists of the central and northeastern parts of Eastern Europe. Under their influence, metal and metalworking appeared among the local post-Neolithic tribes. Mining and metallurgical production actively developed only in the east of the Fatyanovo-Balanovo world - in the Lower Kama region and the Vyatka-Kama interfluve. It is here that the outcrops of cuprous sandstones are concentrated, the smelting of which gave pure copper. From here it went to the western districts of the community. The products of the Fatyanovo-Balanovo hearth are represented by socketed axes, forged spearheads, awls, and various ornaments (spectacle-shaped, wire and plate pendants, cuff-shaped bracelets, etc.). Ax casting technology complies with CMP standards. This is evidenced by double-leaf casting molds made of clay found in the Volosovo-Danilovsky and Churachinsk burial grounds.
1878 Was born Felix Marie Abel- French scientist, specialist in biblical archeology. 1922 Born - an archaeologist, doctor of historical sciences, a specialist in the Bronze Age of the Caucasus, studied the dolmens of the North Caucasus and Abkhazia, an artist. 1949 Born - Soviet and Russian archaeologist, specialist in the field of the Paleolithic of the Caucasus and the Middle East. Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Days of Death 1839 Died Antonio Nibby- Italian archaeologist, topographer, restorer, specialist in Roman archeology, professor of archeology at the University of Rome and the French Academy in Rome.Vekselberg earned 900 million on state orders for medical devices in a year
Billionaire Viktor Vekselberg can be safely called the king of public procurement. His company Stenteks sold coronary stents and catheters to the state for 905 million rubles in 2017.
Coronary stents and catheters are needed to treat acute coronary syndrome. In this syndrome, the artery that feeds the heart clogs with a blood clot or a spasm occurs in it. As a result, little blood enters the heart. A stent is a mesh tube that is inserted into a vessel to restore blood flow.
Stentex is a joint venture between Vekselberg's Renova group of companies and the American company Medtronic. Production should be localized in Russia (in Skolkovo). More process. Therefore, Stentex now supplies the state with imported stents (ST BRIG model - Ireland, Russia, Resolute Integrity model - Ireland, USA, Russia, ST Emercor and ST NC Dylacor models - Mexico, ST PROMPT model - USA).
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