Layer of subcutaneous tissue on an untreated hide

The first letter is "m"

Second letter "e"

Third letter "z"

The last letter of the letter is "a"

Answer for the question "A layer of subcutaneous tissue on a raw hide", 6 letters:
mezdra

Alternative crossword questions for the word mezdra

It is removed when tanning the skin.

The wrong side of raw leather

The layer of skin separated from the dermis

Layer of fabric adjacent to the skin on the inside (removed during tanning)

Definition of the word mezdra in dictionaries

New explanatory dictionary of the Russian language, T. F. Efremova. The meaning of the word in the dictionary New explanatory dictionary of the Russian language, T. F. Efremova.
and. A layer of subcutaneous tissue on untreated leather and animal skins. The wrong side of tanned leather or hide.

Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. D.N. Ushakov The meaning of the word in the dictionary Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language. D.N. Ushakov
flesh, plural no, w. (specialist.). Loose subcutaneous hymen of animals. The non-face inner side of the leather, the underside of the tanned leather.

Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1998 The meaning of the word in the dictionary Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1998
layer of skin (subcutaneous tissue, remains of meat and lard), separated from the dermis during leather dressing. Used for the preparation of wood glue, technical gelatin and fat.

Wikipedia Meaning of the word in the Wikipedia dictionary
Mezdra is a community in Bulgaria. It is part of the Vratsa region. The population is 23,943 people (as of May 15, 2008).

Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language, Dal Vladimir The meaning of the word in the dictionary Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language, Dal Vladimir
mezdrina subcutaneous membrane, tissue that grows with the skin and is partly removed along with it; buhtarma; with different methods of dressing, it is more or less knocked down. The wrong side, the bottom, the underside of the skin. ? Vologda squirrel, Veksha, dark in summer, whitish in winter. Mezdriny, -wood,...

Examples of the use of the word mezdra in literature.

The devil with his throat cut was still alive, the devil was not going to let him die until his skin was removed flesh, so as not to damage the membrane, otherwise all the work will be in vain.

In the skin of Romanov sheep, bundles of collagen columns are not located horizontally, but are intertwined, therefore mezdra has very high strength.

Having skinned the corpse, flesh rubbed with arsenic soap, then the bones were soaked and boiled.

My job was small - to catch a Cat or a Dog, kill it, carefully rip off its skin, God bless, flesh Don’t spoil it, scrape it until it’s in good condition, then put it on special hoops, and drying it is also a whole science: if you dry it out, it’s their skin, for example.

If mezdra crunches and rustles when compressed, which means the fur is overdried, which indicates its fragility and fragility.

Leather is a natural material made from the skins of various animals. Just as no two animals are identical, no two pieces of leather are identical. These natural features are not defects, but only add to the uniqueness of each finished product. This especially applies to exotic leather.

Leather processing is perhaps one of the oldest crafts on earth. Primitive people began processing animal skins many thousands of years ago. This process can be called the very first manufacturing industry. According to archaeologists, remains of leather clothing were found in ancient Egypt, which was made back in the 13th century BC. Almost everything was made from leather. Ancient people used primitive shoes to protect their feet: they wrapped their feet with pieces of animal skins and secured them with leather strips or sinews. The very first shoes of man were sandals, which instead of a sole had a plank tied to the foot with leather straps.

Animals were hunted for their meat and fat, but the animal had to be skinned before using the food. For this, sharp pieces of flint were used, and later flint knives. The skins were then used to keep people warm and were wrapped around their feet, forming the first type of boots. But untreated skins soon began to decompose and rot. It was observed that drying hides in the sun preserved them, but the result was a very hard, inflexible material, of little use for making clothing. The skins had to be softened. This was done by rubbing the prepared hide with various fats.

The fat also helped prevent the hides from getting wet. This type of processing made animal skins soft and elastic. In addition, water was used to process the skins, to which various types of bark and berries were added. It was found that after treating the hides in this way, they became significantly softer and could resist rotting. The active substances contained in extracts from certain plants and which produce such an effect on animal skins are called tannins. This was one of the first methods of tanning leather. Gradually, the technique of making things from leather improved, household items turned into real works of art.

Probably all the peoples of the Earth were engaged in leatherworking, because in ancient times leather was the most accessible material. Humanity learned to spin and weave much later. The Ugrians (a group of Finnish peoples - the Finno-Ugric language group) sewed boots from the skin of birds with plumage; many tribes decorated leather clothes and shoes with silk and gold embroidery, precious stones, paintings, and pearls. The Indians covered the seams on leather clothing with strips of colored prickly fish scales to prevent moisture from passing through the seams.

For the Slavs, leatherworking was also the oldest craft. Already in the 6th-7th centuries, various methods of tanning and processing leather were known in Rus'. The artistic processing of leather has especially developed in the North and Central Russia. For example, in the city of Torzhok, multi-colored morocco was made, and pillows, belts, wallets, pouches, and shoes were made from it embroidered with silver, gold, and silk. Before the First World War, these items were exported from Russia, as well as some types of leather that were superior in quality to their European counterparts.

It is also worth noting the widespread use of leather in book printing. For a long time, books were written on parchment - calfskin dried on a frame. In addition, book bindings themselves were made from leather.

The processes used to produce leather today were invented by our ancestors many thousands of years ago. Since ancient times, leather production has used a tanning process using animal brains as a source of emulsified oils. This process is known as "Indian tanning" and the practice is still used by some people on a small scale. This tanning process is most often used for tanning deerskin. This practice gave rise to the saying that “an animal has mental powers only sufficient to preserve its own skin, dead or alive.

Leather has not lost its relevance in the modern world. With all the development of technology and the emergence of new synthetic materials, leather continues to attract more and more new supporters and admirers. Nowadays, genuine leather products are in great demand, despite their high price.

PRODUCTION OF GENUINE LEATHER

Processing of raw hides

It is believed that the highest quality leather is made from the skins of cows (bull, calf). It is used for shoes, clothing, furniture upholstery, etc. Leather from sheep or goat skins (sheepskin, goat) is mainly used with hair (like fur). Leather made from pig skins is elastic, but has a persistent characteristic odor, therefore it is valued lower than others. Leather from crocodile, python, stingray, ostrich and other exotic animals is used for the production of leather goods, clothing, shoes and other business areas.

There is a rule: the higher the quality of the hide, the fewer stages in the technological cycle of its processing until the finished leather. The goal when processing skins with good face quality (face refers to the top layer of the hide) is usually to ensure that the face is preserved and even emphasized. The finished product retains the natural pattern of the face - wrinkles and pores that are present on the raw skin. By placing your palm on the surface of the leather with a natural face (fool grain), you get the feeling of a natural elastic product.

The skins of dairy calves (calfs), being thinner than the skins of adult animals, can compete with them in strength and wear resistance. This is explained by the thicker and denser fiber structure of the skins of dairy calves. The process of processing hides into finished leather can be simplified as a combination of three main stages:

Leather dressing.

Dressing is one of the simplest methods of leather processing, and at the same time the most ancient of them.

The production of finished leather is a rather labor-intensive and lengthy process, which consists of three main stages leather production:

soaking-ash processes;

preparatory processes and tanning;

chemical finishing and dyeing and greasing processes.

1. Soot-ash processes

Raw skins: skins of cattle, mainly skins of bulls and cows, taking into account their origin and weight category. Raw skins are supplied from the south of Germany and Switzerland, as well as from other regions: skins of wild animals - from the USA, South America, Australia, New Zealand, etc., in some cases water buffalo skins are used (India and Indonesia), less often - veal and pork skins.

Canning: If delivery of leather does not take much time and immediate processing is provided, then the leather is simply frozen. In all cases, the supply of salted skins is considered normal.

Soaking: First stage of processing. The skins are soaked to remove dirt. They gain moisture again. Biological moisturizers are used to soften the skin. First, preliminary softness is achieved, then the main one. Once the skin is softened, any remaining meat can be removed.

Gilding: Removal of the upper stratum corneum of the skin and hair. At this stage, the type of leather is determined, which serves as the basis for its further intended purpose. Chemicals used substances: lime and sodium sulfide, which are then neutralized with acid.

In this case, the following 4 goals are mainly set:

1) weaken the connections of the hair and epidermis with the dermis;

2) carry out partial saponification of fatty substances;

3) achieve sufficient swelling of the hide fibers;

4) bring the hide to the chemical state necessary for tanning.

In addition, the conditions of liming and ashling also affect such properties of the finished leather as tensile strength and moisture holding capacity. The strength of leather that has been subjected to intense action from the ash pit is always less. This is due to the destruction of bonds in the main chain (intramolecular bonds) during such processing.

Water resistance of leather decreases with intensive treatment with an ash solution, which is associated with an increase in their porosity.

2. Preparatory process With.

Wool cutting. Produced on special hair cutting machines. This operation is carried out after liming, when the connection between the hair and the dermis is weakened. The semi-finished product after wool removal is usually called golyem.

Flesh: Removal of meat cuts, tendons and subcutaneous fat layer (mendra). Mezdra is used for the production of technical gelatin. The treated leathers are ready for tanning and are called "golyo".

Face cleaning. This operation follows after fleshing. Cleaning consists of removing short hair (sagging), as well as partially the breakdown products of proteins and fats.

Deliming and pickling: The skin is cleaned of liming products through neutralization, and defermentation is carried out - pickling. The skin is thoroughly treated and becomes smoother. Ash shank is in a state of high swelling - strong swelling and contains a large amount of calcium compounds, both associated with collagen and deposited in the form of lime and calcareous salts.

Boiling: Serves as a preparation for the mineral tanning process. Golier is immersed in drums of brine and then treated with weakly concentrated acid. The tanning substances added during this process cannot yet act actively, but they evenly impregnate the fish.

Flushing. Washing is carried out with water to remove calcium salts and protein breakdown products. After washing, the raw material enters the tanning apparatus for tanning.

GhostingWetBlue: Legs obtained from large raw materials (bull, cow, bull, etc.) are subjected to doubling. When doubling, after liming, the skin is sawn on splitting machines into two layers: the upper face layer and the lower melon layer.

The golyo is cut into layers along its entire surface thickness. The layer with traces of skin defects is cut off evenly throughout its entire thickness. The remaining layers retain their natural uneven thickness. The top layer is the future natural leather. The bottom layers after tanning are called split leather. The top layer of leather used for the production of leather furniture is subjected to additional liming.

When sawing, the thickness of the face split is specified, so it is obtained with the same thickness over the entire area. Upper split leather is usually used for the manufacture of more important parts of shoes, melon leather for less important parts of shoes and haberdashery leathers.

It is necessary to take into account that the overall strength of the splits is low compared to the original bare metal.

In addition to the above preparatory operations, for some types of leather, additional doubling, saddle scraping, softening, and pickling are used.

2. 2. Tanning

Tanning shop.

The resulting raw materials are processed in special tanning drums, after which a wet blue chrome semi-finished product is obtained, which is ready for use.

The resulting bare is unsuitable for making shoes and other products. When watered, the fish swells greatly, absorbing large quantities of moisture and greatly increasing in volume.

Drying of the fish is accompanied by a sharp decrease in its volume, gluing of its structural elements and a change in mechanical properties. Dried fish become hard, horn-like and brittle. Golye is not resistant to heat when wet, the action of bacteria and enzymes. Thus, the shape and stability of the material are lost. To get rid of these phenomena, the naked is tanned, that is, treated with tannins.

According to modern concepts, tanning is the process of fastening collagen molecules with tanning agent particles (cross-linking of molecules)

The leather obtained as a result of tanning differs from bare leather in a number of properties:

♦moisture capacity decreases, since the ability to swell in water is lost;

♦stiffness increases, since during tanning, due to the formation of additional cross-links in the dermis, the mobility of skin collagen macromolecules is lost;

♦the strength of the structural elements of the track increases. But it should be remembered that excessive woodworking, on the contrary, reduces strength. This is explained by the fact that when tanning above a certain optimum, the strength decreases due to an increase in rigidity and a decrease in the ability to orient the structural elements of the skin;

♦increases elasticity and associated wear resistance;

♦heat resistance increases. This is due to an increase in the number of chemical cross-links and the welding temperature during tanning (Tcg);

♦porosity increases. This is explained by the fact that tanning agents, penetrating (wedging) into the structure of the dermis, separate the elements of the structure and this is subsequently fixed due to the formation of chemical cross-links;

♦ dimensional stability increases. This is due to the fact that tanning agents, forming cross-links between collagen macromolecules, do not allow the dermis to swell and, in addition, do not allow them to come closer together and stick together;

♦chemical resistance increases. This is due to the fact that the functional groups of dermal collagen are blocked by tanning agents;

♦improves appearance;

♦in the dermis after tanning, the thickness, area and angle of inclination of collagen fiber bundles increase. This already speaks of the economic efficiency of tanning and an increase, in particular, in the wear resistance of sole leather.

The modern theory of tanning considers tanning as a process consisting of a number of physical and chemical phenomena and occurring in two stages. The first stage is the diffusion of the tanning agent into the thickness of the skin, the second is the interaction of the tanning agent with collagen molecules. In this case, both processes occur simultaneously.

Tanning substances are classified into two groups:

1.Organic (tannides, aldehydes, fats).

2. Mineral (titanium, chrome, zirconium and aluminum compounds).

Basic tanning:

Chrome tanning is carried out with aqueous solutions of basic salts of trivalent chromium, which is not toxic. Tannins penetrate deeply into the leather, which helps strengthen it and will not cause damage if used normally. Hexavalent chromium is not used for tanning, as it is poisonous. After chromium penetrates into the treated leather, the remaining acid is partially drawn out, and the chromium is fixed in the leather fibers and thereby neutralized. Zirconium, aluminum and titanium tanning is carried out similarly.

Layering and wilting:

To set the tannins, the leather is laid out in layers and dried.

Folding (rolling):

Serves to even out skin thickness.

Neutralization: acids remaining in the skin are carefully neutralized with slaked lime. At subsequent stages of processing, skin groups are established.

Final tanning: modification and development of leather properties using stronger tannins in combination with primary tanning. Combination with vegetable and/or synthetic tannins, chromium and other minerals is possible.

3. Chemical finishing and dyeing and greasing processes

At the final stage of chemical finishing, the following operations are performed:

retanning (using chromium compounds, syntans, and other special agents); Dyeing: Leathers are dyed in dye baths with permanent dyes that penetrate deeply into the leather fibers. Only natural, non-toxic and environmentally friendly dyes are used. The paint penetrates deeply into the structure of the skin, fattening (fats, oils, emulsifiers, ammonia are used)

The final product of tanning production is leather, i.e. the entire technological production process is nothing more than the transformation of hide into finished leather.

Vegetable (aldehyde) tanned leather is leather whose tanning process uses tanning bark (hence the name “tanning”) and other ingredients obtained from plants, tree bark and similar sources. The result is a brown elastic material. The desired shade is achieved by varying the quantity and quality of the ingredients used and selecting the color of the raw materials. Vegetable tanned leather is not water resistant. When exposed to moisture, it changes color, and if it absorbs liquid and then dries, it will decrease in size (“shrink”) and harden, becoming less elastic. In hot water, this type of leather shrinks greatly and becomes a hard, brittle material, which limits the possibility of its use.

Alum-tanned leather, the tanning process of which uses aluminum salts mixed with various binders and protein substances, for example, egg powder, etc. Purists argue that alum-tanned leather is technically "rawhide" rather than tanned because the resulting material will rot in water. This process produces leathers with desaturated tones, but the resulting material is not as flexible as vegetable tanned leather.

Rawhide is made by scraping the hide, soaking it in lime, and then stretching it to dry. Like alum-tanned leather, rawhide is not technically a "leather" but is commonly referred to in conjunction with other forms of leather. Rawhide is tougher and more brittle than other forms of leather and is used to make drums as well as cords used for lacing or stitching.

Boiled leather - leather products (vegetable tanned leather) that are immersed in hot water or boiling wax or similar substances to increase strength. Historically, such leather was used as armor due to its hardness and light weight, and was also used for book bindings.

Chrome tanned leather, invented in 1858, uses chromium sulfate and other chromium salts. This form of leather is softer and more flexible than vegetable tanned leather. In addition, it does not change color or lose shape when exposed to water, like vegetable tanned leather.

Leather (usually vegetable tanned leather) can be lubricated with certain oily substances to improve its water resistance. This increases the amount of natural fats found directly in the leather, which are washed out during use of leather products, which may be exposed to intense moisture. Frequently lubricating leather products with mink fat, refined oil or similar substances will maintain the softness of the leather and increase the life of the product.

Production of finished leather.

The production of finished leather is a rather labor-intensive and lengthy process that takes place in several stages.

Leather painting.

The sorted leather is transferred to the dyeing shop, where the so-called semi-finished product Crust is produced.

The semi-finished product is sorted and transferred for further dyeing, which is carried out using the latest technologies in special dyeing drums, which makes it possible to use chemicals economically and delicately treat the leather.

Before dyeing, the color of the leather depends on the tanning method (fat tanning - mustard yellow color; chrome tanning - light green color; iron tanning - canary color, etc.).

Skins that do not have any defects, without spots and without masks, can be painted in various cysts; skin with spots turns black. To dye leather black, after tanning and washing, it is dyed, then fattened and dried. For color dyeing, leather is only dyed without being greased, as fat can leave stains.

For dyeing black, vegetable dyes and aniline dyes are used; for colored leathers - currently almost exclusively aniline dyes.

Aniline dyes are divided into basic and acidic.

At this stage, ideally smooth elite leather is ready to enter the packaging workshop.

Leather that is not smooth for one reason or another is embossed.

Experts determine the quality of the leather and the type of embossing that will help hide minor imperfections in the surface of the leather.

A variety of types of embossing are used: from very small (the so-called dust plate) to very large (the so-called Tigina), as well as shagreen embossing, used for sewing special-purpose shoes.

fine embossing

shagreen embossing

very fine embossing

very large embossing

large embossing

medium embossing

Before packaging and sending to the finished product warehouse, all leather undergoes final sorting and measurement.

When the hides arrive at the tannery after the preservation process, they are examined for damage or poorly treated and preserved hides. At this stage, the entire batch of leather may be rejected and returned to the manufacturer.

In turn, leather is classified according to the method of coloring:

1. Dip painting. Fold two leathers with the inner side and immerse them manually in a 40-50° dye bath; in this case, the inner side is painted only very lightly. This method is used when dyeing small leathers (goats, sheep, calves, etc.), with a small number of them.

2. Painting in a vat with wide rotating blades. When the blades rotate together with the dye bath, they also rotate the skin. With this method, especially suitable for large quantities of leather, both sides of the leather are dyed.

3. Painting in a washing drum, closed rotating vessel with hollow axes for adding coloring solution. This method requires a very "short" dye bath, so that the dyes can be used very well; This method is mainly used for chrome leather.

4. Applying paint with brushes produced mostly on large skins. The leather is spread on the table, the top side is well wetted, and then paint is applied.

5. Dyes. To color leather tanned with vegetable oak substances, basic and acidic dyes are used, less often substantive ones. When using basic dyes, add 1 - 2 g of acetic acid per 1 liter of dye mixture. For acidic dyes, add 1-3 g of formic acid per 1 liter of water. Nothing is added to the substantive coloring matter. In all cases, painting is carried out at 45-50°.

6. Chrome leather coloring. For chrome leather, acidic dyes with the addition of acetic or sulfuric acid are used first. Before adding the dye, the skin should be treated with quebracho extract to better fix the dye. Basic dyes are also suitable for coloring chrome leather; the quebracho bath is accordingly enhanced. Acetic acid should be added to substantive colorants. The temperature of the dye baths can reach 50-60°.

7. Kid leather coloring. Kid leather is dyed like chrome leather, but the temperature of the dye baths should be lower (40-45°).

(They mainly use acidic and basic dyes.)

8. Suede leather coloring. When dyeing suede, use basic dyes (with Glauber's salt and acetic acid) and dye at a temperature of 30°. Acidic dyes are used with the addition of Glauber's salt, at a dye bath temperature of 40-45°.

9. Patent leather coloring. a) Black. The leather that is to be varnished is fixed in a frame, placed on a smooth board and the front side is sanded with a piece of pumice until the leather is no longer rough. Next, they take a good oil varnish, mix it with Dutch soot and make a liquid paint from this, which they smear on the leather; then the latter is exposed to the sun to dry, and carefully protected from dust.

Having done this, proceed as before, dry it again, take pumice and polish it; when the skin becomes smooth, it is dried for an hour, after which the paint that was applied is mixed with Dutch soot and applied liquidly another 2-3 times.

When it dries again, take felt and finely ground pumice and polish until the leather is completely smooth.

Skin configuration

In production, leather is cut and has various configurations.

Saddle dressing represents the division of the skin into topographic areas. Large raw materials are subjected to saddle covering, the topographic areas of which are most differentiated in thickness and microstructure.

According to the configuration of the leather there are: whole leather, half-leather, kulat, semi-kulat, collar, saddle.

Types of leather by finishing method

Smooth skin

The natural pattern is preserved as much as possible - at least, they are not embossed at all, or very fine “dust-like” embossing is applied to the front surface. Leathers of this group are made from the highest quality raw materials using the most modern chemical materials.

Sanded leather

Sanding the mesh side and additional splitting makes it possible to obtain “Velour”, which is used for the production of sports, indoor and dress shoes. However, there are leathers whose polishing is predetermined by the technology of their manufacture - this is Nubuck, which is indispensable for the manufacture of both men's and women's shoes. Colored nubuck inserts are widely used in the production of children's shoes.

Embossed leather

Leathers of medium and low price ranges are indispensable for inexpensive work or uniform shoes. They differ in pattern and depth of embossing. The finer the pattern and depth of the embossing, the less ability this embossing has to hide defects. All drawings can be divided into several categories:

patent leather

Depending on the properties and color of the coating, leather can acquire a wide variety of color and organoleptic properties. Such leather is very widely used in the production of both women's and men's dress shoes. Patent leathers are represented by the articles "Orion", "Naplak". Patent leather can be embossed to obtain the desired pattern. Patent leather shoes look great and always attract attention.

Splits

An artificial polymer “face” is applied to the split leather, imitating the natural front surface. Split leather manufacturing technology allows you to use inexpensive raw materials and obtain an excellent solution for the production of inexpensive shoes with a quality close to that of genuine leather with a grain surface. The assortment of split leather with an artificial face surface is represented by the article "Legend" with various embossing options. All options for embossing split leather are identical to the embossing of leather with a grain covering, which allows you to combine them in the production of shoes (vamp - grain leather, ankle boots, tops - split grain). Split leather without applying an artificial “face” is used for making shoe lining material and sewing workwear.

Krasty

Semi-finished leather obtained after drum dyeing (no surface finishing). Has a natural pattern on the front surface. The absence of surface finishing allows one to avoid most of the defects associated with the peeling of the “face” - marking and odor. Modern processing makes it possible to impart the property of hydrophobicity to the paint, and special dyeing provides through-coloring. Well-made crust is difficult to distinguish from leather with a smooth surface. Crusts are widely used by shoemakers to produce shoes for a wide variety of purposes.

Leatherettes.

We distinguish 4 main types of products we represent (3 types of artificial leather and PVC film):

Artificial leather (faux leather) MF. This is modern leather based on microfibers (Micro Fiber)

Artificial leather (imitation leather) PU. This is a modern type of artificial polyurethane leather

Artificial leather (imitation leather) PVC. Classic PVC leather

PVC film. PVC film

Today, artificial leather (imitation leather) is a high-quality and environmentally friendly material, superior in some respects to natural leather. If the customer wishes, the aesthetic appearance of artificial leather is no different from natural leather on both the front and back sides. At the same time, it is possible to produce artificial leather with a texture and color that is not characteristic of natural leather, which is skillfully implemented by designers in their fashionable modern projects.

Nowadays, most types of leather are made from cow hides, but the skins of other animals are also used. Lamb and deer skins are used to produce soft leather, which is used to make the most expensive clothing. Kangaroo hide is used as a raw material for the production of products that need to be strong but flexible, such as leggings. Leather made from the skins of more exotic animals, particularly certain types of reptiles, was very popular in its day. Products made from it were considered the most beautiful and sophisticated. For this reason, hunting for some species of snakes and crocodiles has become so widespread that it has brought the above-mentioned species of reptiles and cold-blooded animals to the brink of extinction.

Before moving on to the description of the work, you should understand the accepted terminology.

Depending on what technological cycle you consider possible for yourself, you will have to work with material of varying degrees of readiness. If your ambitions do not go further than a small family enterprise for sewing fur or leather clothing, it makes sense to purchase the so-called semi-finished product - tanned hides or leather that do not require special pre-processing operations.

Fur semi-finished product or tanned leather is completely ready for cutting and can be either individual natural or dyed skins, or plates and strips sewn from them (rectangular or trapezoidal panels) - for fur and geometric layers - for semi-finished leather products.

If conditions permit, it is preferable to take control of the processing process from the very beginning. It is more profitable to work with so-called raw materials not only for economic reasons, but also because by tanning the skins yourself, you get the opportunity to fully control the entire process in compliance with all necessary requirements.

Raw materials are usually called preserved but untreated skins of various animals. Depending on its purpose and main characteristics, the raw material can be leather, fur or fur. As a rule, meat processing plants and slaughterhouses of livestock farms sell skins in the form of raw materials (that is, canned). Before conservation, the skins undergo primary processing.

The skins of all types of domestic animals are removed in a layer (hollow), and the skins of fur-bearing animals are removed in a layer, which is less preferable, or with a “stocking” (tube), that is, without cutting along the midline of the abdomen. Such skin is cut (opened) only before cutting.

Primary processing includes two stages: ritual (cutting) and washing. The latter is used only for cattle skins, pork and horse skins intended for a certain method of preservation (see “Rules of Preservation and Storage”). The procedure consists of removing dirt from the hair of the skin, cleaning the skins from cuts of meat or fat and trimming substandard areas. Preservation of hides, that is, their transformation into raw materials for further processing, is caused by the need for more or less long-term storage of hides before dressing. The purpose of preservation is to dehydrate the skin, as a result of which the vital activity of bacteria and enzymatic processes cease (self-decomposition of a steamed skin under the influence of the enzymes produced in it). There are several methods of preservation; The advantages and disadvantages of each of them, as well as possible conservation defects, will be discussed in more detail below.

The hide has different characteristics in different topographic areas. This must be taken into account at all stages of processing and dressing of hides. Sections of the skin are united according to common characteristics (structure and physical properties of leather tissue, etc.) and have established designations depending on their location on the animal’s body (Fig. 1): head part, collar (neck), saddle or spinal part with the rump included in it, the floors or the belly and paws.

Rice. 1. Different areas of cattle hide

Cattle skins (cattle) and astrakhan fur skins can have a head part (the skin of the forehead and both cheeks, one of which is adjacent to the frontal part, removed from the animal’s head). Otherwise, the names of the areas practically coincide with those indicated in the figure, only on pork skins the saddle part is called krupon (Fig. 2).

Rice. 2. Topography of the open skin of a fur-bearing animal

In the hide or pelt itself, there are two components that differ sharply in mechanical, physical and chemical properties and in technological purpose - leather tissue and hair.

Unlike, for example, cattle skins, which are used for tanning leather, fur raw materials and furs are also characterized by the quality of the hair, which, like leather fabric, has noticeable differences in characteristics in different areas of the skin.

Thus, the height of the hair (measured in its natural, unstraightened state) decreases from the neck to the ridge and from the ridge to the womb, the thickness and color of the hair also changes in different topographic areas: on the ridge and rump the hair is highest, on the womb the hair is less dense . Exceptions are the so-called “semi-aquatic” species of fur-bearing animals (nutria, muskrat), which have the thickest fur on the belly.

The hairline consists of individual wool fibers (hair), which can differ in structure and length. The purpose of the raw material depends on these characteristics. For example, the predominance of coarse guard hairs in the hair coat makes the latter unsuitable for dyeing, and a uniform hair coat with a predominance of finer fibers makes it possible to imitate a semi-finished fur product for valuable types of fur.

According to its structure, hair is divided into several morphological types: down fibers, transitional and guard fibers. Down fibers consist of a main cortical layer and a thin protective shell - the scaly layer. The guard fibers, in addition, also have a so-called core layer with a fragile porous structure. It consists of dead keratinized cells with air spaces between them. In transitional fibers, the medullary layer is poorly developed and is not represented along the entire length of the hair. There are also dead and dry fibers, which consist almost entirely of the core layer.

Different types of fibers have different thicknesses, which is the average diameter of an individual hair. This indicator is called fiber fineness and also allows you to assign an individual hide to a specific group of raw materials for its final purpose. Fineness is determined in laboratory conditions or, if you have known experience, by eye.

In addition to their purpose according to the characteristics of the hair (for cutting hair and tanning leather, for the production of fur or fur products), skins are distinguished by the quality of the leather fabric. Its main characteristics - thickness and density - are important not only during skinning, but also at all other stages: during primary processing - dressing and cutting.

When characterizing leather tissue, another special term is often used: “stretch”. Stretch is the ability of leather fabric to stretch with subsequent preservation of linear dimensions.

The thickness and density of leather fabric (and the strength of the skin, which depends on them) are highest in the area of ​​the saddle cloth and rump; less dense leather is located on the collar or, for fur raw materials, on the ridge and nape. The thinnest leather tissue is located on the sides and floors (belly). The basic properties of leather fabric depend on its structure.

Leather tissue consists of several interconnected layers. The skin itself is called the dermis and has a mixed structure. It consists of a complex interweaving of bundles of collagen fibers and a small number of reticulin and elastic fibers located between them.

Collagen fibers are the main structural element of the dermis; their bundles form a tight bond and provide mechanical strength to the entire skin tissue. Reticulin and elastin fibers are thinner and do not form bundles; their purpose is to give the skin elasticity and firmness.

The space between the fiber bundles is filled with the main (interfibrous) substance, consisting of various protein compounds, and cellular elements. In addition to fibers and the main substance, the dermis contains sweat and sebaceous glands, hair follicles, hair muscles, lymphatic and blood vessels.

Based on the ratio of fibrous and cellular elements in the dermis, two layers are distinguished (Fig. 3), the boundary of which passes approximately at the depth of the bulk of the hair follicles (hair follicles). The upper layer, called the papillary layer, is looser, since it accounts for the bulk of all cellular elements, glands and blood vessels.

Rice. 3. Structure of leather tissue

The bottom layer is called reticular and contains most of the structure-forming fibrous elements (bundles of collagen fibers), intertwined with each other like a strong mesh.

Through protruding tubercles and depressions, the upper - papillary - layer of the dermis is connected to the epidermis. The epidermis consists of several layers of epithelial cells and has a slight thickness, but its preservation during the processing of fur raw materials is extremely important, since it ensures the strength of the hair.

Adjacent to the lower - reticular - layer of the dermis in the animal’s body is subcutaneous tissue, consisting of an interweaving of muscle tissue with elastin and collagen fibers and a large number of fat cells. The subcutaneous tissue also contains nerve fibers and blood vessels that supply the dermis. A skin removed in accordance with all the rules has on the underside of the leather tissue a more or less thick layer of subcutaneous tissue and connective tissue (mystery), which must be completely removed during processing.

The outer side of the leather tissue is called the front side, and the inner side is the flesh side or, after removing the flesh, the mesh side. The skin tissue itself with an unexpressed division into layers (in animals of the embryonic stage of development) is also sometimes called the skin tissue itself. Speaking about the inner side of the leather tissue of the removed skin, it is also simply called mezdra or bakhtarma. When producing a semi-finished leather product, the hair along with the epidermis is removed from the front side, the surface of the papillary layer of the dermis is exposed, after which the finished skin acquires a characteristic “face” pattern - a measure.

HR. 2.7.44.5. Processing and dressing of hides. Raw food.

Alexander Sergeevich Suvorov (“Alexander Suvory”).

CHRONOLOGY OF THE HISTORY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT.

Experience in reconstructing the sequence of historical events in time and space in correlation with solar activity

Book two. DEVELOPMENT OF HUMANITY BCE.

Part 7. The era of mythical civilizations.

Chapter 44.5. Processing and dressing of hides. Raw food.

Illustration from the open Internet.

Eurasia (Russia). Eastern Siberia. Berengia. North America. Migrations of primitive people. Modern humanity. Homo sapiens neanderthalensis is a race of humanity of classical intelligent Neanderthals. Homo sapiens sapiens is the race of humanity of the classical Cro-Magnons. Animals of the Mammoth complex. Siberian bison. Processing and dressing of hides. Raw food. 50,000 BC

Processing and dressing any animal skins is a complex, lengthy and labor-intensive process. Skinning is just the beginning. Then the skin must be folded correctly, transferred to a camp or settlement site and carefully processed there.

If someone thinks that the primitive people of this and subsequent times (50,000-40,000 BC) were “wild”, “uncivilized”, “primitive”, then let this modern person try to hunt a bison, shoot (“tear off”) the skin from it and process it with Stone Age tools so that it is soft, fluffy, clean, convenient for use and storage...

Processing and dressing of animal skins requires compliance with:
special temperature regime;
certain complex solutions;
long, thorough and labor-intensive processing process;
tools and devices;
experience and knowledge;
intelligence and patience.

Any deviation from the traditional methods and techniques of skin dressing developed over thousands of years leads to their damage.

Perhaps it is the traditional primitive methods, techniques, techniques and technology for processing animal skins that are an indicator of the level of civilization of humanity at a given time (50,000 BC).

In any case, there is no doubt that the classical Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons of this and subsequent times (50,000-40,000 BC) everywhere mined, tanned and used animal skins and furs. How did they do it (or could they do it)?

Processing and dressing of hides is a multi-level and multi-operational (complex) mechanical and chemical effect that changes the properties of the hide, making it suitable for use and long-term storage.

To process skins and fur, you need, first of all, water (a lot of water), various substances and solutions (organic and mineral) and special tools (tools and devices).

A freshly harvested, raw hide from an animal (such as bison) without treatment will typically quickly lose its elasticity, shrink, harden, or begin to deteriorate. Therefore, primitive people of this time (50,000 BC) inevitably, naturally and naturally tried to maintain the elasticity of the skin, preventing it from drying out and deteriorating.

For fleshing (cleaning the flesh), special tools (scrapers) are used, as well as methods and devices that facilitate labor and level the surface of the skin being processed (blocks, cradles). That is why at primitive sites and camps numerous stone scrapers are found, which, most likely, were used to clean and soften the flesh.

The fact is that the original, oldest and most widespread method of processing hides was rawhide (raw meat) - cleaning and kneading raw (“steamed”, fresh) skin, “raw meat”. This method does not involve tanning (processing the hide with chemical solutions and substances).

Raw meat (raw meat, rawhide), as a rule, surpasses tanned hides in its softness, ductility, and strength. Rawhide can retain wool or be dehaired and have the appearance of a beautiful velvety suede (“doeskin”).

The original antiquity of rawhide is evidenced by its numerous names, which will be in use among various peoples of Eurasia, as well as multiple methods of its processing and production: “scraped rawhide”, “bread (Russian) rawhide”, “alum (Hungarian, German) rawhide”, “ pickel raw meat”, “ash-bread raw meat”, “spread raw meat”, “milk raw meat”, “smoky raw meat”, “frozen raw meat”, “ash-glucose raw meat” and “alcohol raw meat”.

However, the primary rawhide or raw leather (skin) was probably “chewed rawhide”, because the most likely and very first method of processing the hide (skin) was chewing it with teeth, sucking it with the mouth, and wetting it with saliva.

Rawhide (hide) differs from all other types of isolated leather (hide) in that it remains actually edible, that is, raw natural skin (hide). Therefore, it can be eaten in hungry years and times...

The production of rawhide is carried out in the following order: fleshing the hide (cleaning the flesh), dehairing the hide (removing hair, if necessary), impregnating the hide (skin) with various substances and drying with kneading the hide (skin). If conditions permit, then impregnation and drying are replaced by freezing the skin. Then, to better preserve the raw meat, it is fattened and/or smoked.

Naturally and naturally, primitive people of this time (50,000 BC) when cutting animal carcasses (for example, bison) noticed that if the liver, lungs and brains of the animal are wrapped in the removed skin, then the raw meat becomes softer, more elastic, more plastic .

Therefore, when processing (impregnating) raw meat, these important animal organs were inevitably used, as well as other active natural substances: animal and bird excrement, fermented milk products, fish oil and caviar, human urine, as well as various starter cultures, for example, kvass made from flour and bran (“Russian raw bread meat”).

That primitive people of this time (50,000 BC) were probably already familiar with intentionally crushed or crushed grains, stems, leaves, fruits and roots of plants is beyond doubt, since this naturally follows from the presence of a well-developed industry production of stone tools. (See: XP 2.5.2. The Age of Modern Man. Grain grater. 280,000 BC).

Probably the most important step in the technique (technology) of processing rawhide (skin) is kneading.

Crumpling, kneading, chewing with teeth, twisting, shaking, rolling, folding at different angles, pulling under pressure along a smooth branch-stick, trampling the skin with the legs (feet) of children and adults - all and all methods of softening skins were used by primitive people of this time (50 000 BC) to make raw materials truly soft, flexible and pliable.

The fact is that poorly produced rawhide, after getting wet or over time, can harden, like raw, “steamed” or just removed skin (skin). To prevent this from happening, raw meat is treated (impregnated) with fats and (or) smoked. When impregnated and smoked, raw meat is saturated with softening substances and smoke tar.

After fatliquoring (impregnation) and smoking, white (light) rawhide (skin) acquires a beautiful cream or brown color of varying intensity. The rawhide or leather is now ready for further dyeing and/or coloring...

Rawhide hides of varying quality are used to make:

Housing coverings;
curtains;
bed coverings;
clothes;
shoes;
hats and masks;
waist belts;
braided ropes and laces;
sacks, sacks, knapsacks, bags;
arcana;
harnesses;
fastening bandage belts;
bow strings;
slings;
whips;
cases and pouches;
sheath for weapons;
shields;
jewelry and toys,
as well as many other items of primitive life and economy.

Particularly carefully processed rawhide is used to make shamanic tambourines and drums...

For the needs of this second book of “Chronology...” we could stop here, but the author, for the most inquisitive readers, will tell a few more details of the reconstruction of the most ancient methods of processing and dressing rawhide, animal skins and skins.

While processing and dressing hides and leather, primitive people of this and subsequent times (50,000-40,000 BC), undoubtedly and inevitably, knew or should have known (knew) the structure and structure of skins, hair and skin, properties and defects of hides (skin), their differences by type and breed, rules for the use, storage and care of hides (raw meat).

For example, they knew that the skin of most animals has the following structure: hair (fur), skin, consisting of several layers, and a subcutaneous layer (mystery). Nowadays this structure of skins has names: hairline; epidermis (epidermis); dermis; fat layer; muscular layer; subcutaneous tissue.

Naturally, primitive people of this time distinguished and well felt the difference in the hair of animal skins (in particular, bison skins). The hairs of animal skins are divided into guide hairs, guard hairs, intermediate hairs, downy hairs, and sensory hairs (vibrissae, whiskers).

The shortest and thinnest downy hairs form the densest underlying layer of hair. They are supported and prevented from matting by guides, guard hairs and intermediate hairs of the skin. The guide hairs give the skin and fur a beautiful appearance, while the guard and intermediate hairs give the skin volume and fullness.

All hairs together form a scalp that well protects the animal’s skin and body from hypothermia and overheating, from mechanical stress and from excessive environmental humidity. It is these properties of animal skins and fur that people of this and the present time urgently need for active life in the harshest natural conditions.

In most animals of the Mammoth complex, the hair is in a state of rest (winter or summer) or in a state of growth or molting (spring, autumn). During shedding, old hair falls out and is replaced by new hair.

The roots of guard and down hairs lie in the skin of animals at different depths, so during fleshing, for example, the roots of guard hairs are cut and they easily fall out of the skin (“flow”).

The skin of an animal's skin also has a layered structure.

The surface layer of the skin (epidermis) is very thin (1/20th of the thickness of the skin), but it also consists of two layers: the horny (upper) and mucous (inner). The upper protective stratum corneum, dying off during the animal's life, turns into dandruff.

The skin (dermis) consists mainly of collagen fibers, which determine the main consumer properties of skin and skin. The top layer of skin (dermis) is where the hair roots are located. The strength of the hair depends on the condition of this layer. The sebaceous and sweat glands are located here, and the “life” of the skin occurs.

In the lower layer of the skin (dermis) there are fibers of connective mesh tissue, which determine the tensile strength of the skin (skin). It is this layer that hardens and becomes horny if the skin is not processed, dressed and stored correctly, and determines the flexibility, softness, elasticity and strength of the skin (skin).

The inner part of the skin (skin) or flesh consists of a fat layer, a muscle layer and subcutaneous tissue.

The fat layer contains fat cells separated by thin films of connective tissue. The muscle layer is a thin film of muscle tissue, and subcutaneous tissue is loose connective tissue with fat cells that directly connects the hide to the animal's carcass.

The fat and muscle layers, as well as subcutaneous tissue, are the flesh, bakhtarma, or the inner side of the skin, which is removed with scrapers during fleshing.

By the way, the structure of animal skin is very similar in appearance to tree bark. Maybe that’s why, according to the law of similarity (everything is like everything), in the old days hides and skins were called “skora” or “skoryo”, and the craftsmen who made skora were called furriers, tanners and leather workers.

The main strength properties of hides and skins are provided by collagen or connective tissue, which makes up over 90% of the total protein substances of the hide (skin).

Collagen tissue (collagen is the “glue-giving”) tends to swell in water, and when heated to a temperature of 50-60°C, it welds and becomes rubber-like. Active chemicals (acids and alkalis), as well as high-energy environmental radiation, have an even stronger effect on collagen tissue.

At the same time, collagen has the property of combining with tannins, which dramatically change its properties: collagen tissue becomes resistant to humidity (swells less), to high temperatures (“cooks” at higher temperatures), and also becomes resistant to microorganisms, rot and mold.

Of course, it is doubtful that the primitive people of this time (50,000 BC) knew everything about hides and leather that we, modern people, know, especially in the above expressions and words. However, they could and knew the listed properties of hides and skins practically.

For example, they undoubtedly could distinguish between the skins and skins of animals of different ages and animals of different species.

Initially and at all times, the skins of animals with high and thick fur had and still have the greatest practical and aesthetic value, on which the thermal conductivity, durability, fluffiness and beauty of the skins (fur, leather) depend.

The most valuable skins with fur should be soft, elastic, fluffy, durable, with beautiful color and shine to the hair. Skins that are resistant to tearing and wear are especially valued.

Such skins are found on animals (in particular bison) that are hunted in autumn and late autumn. During spring molting, hair falls out easily, and the skin is unevenly covered with clumps of matted, dying hair.

That is why hunters of all times and peoples, countries and villages prefer to hunt fur-bearing animals and animals seasonally - in the fall (from August) or early winter (until the end of December). At this time, the animals of the Mammoth complex are well-fed, meaty, fatty, and their skin is thick and healthy. The main thing is that during this period all summer sores, damage and defects of the skin are healed, and new (winter) ones have not yet appeared...

The skins of Siberian bison and other large horned animals of the Mammoth complex have very good consumer properties, because their skin, due to the special structure of the skin, is usually tight, durable, internally stretched, “lean”, with a low fat content. Therefore, among all the types of hides and skins available to primitive man, bison skin is the most durable, and therefore valuable.

Probably, primitive people of this time, classical Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons already know the difference and value of hides and skins depending on the sex and age of animals.

Undoubtedly, the greatest value is the skin and skin of a young buffalo calf, still feeding on the milk of a female buffalo mother. The fibers of such hide (skin) – “opoek” – are thin, elastic and densely intertwined. The hair is thick, thin, lush and beautiful. The skin of the “opoek” is soft, thin, with a beautiful surface (mereia). In the future, parchment for the first handwritten books and chronicles will be made from the skin of the “opoek”.

The skin-skin of a bison calf that has switched to plant foods - the “outgrowth” - is smooth, thick with a beautiful surface (mereya), but less full than the skin-skin of the “poek”. The tops of leather shoes and leather goods are made from the outgrowth skin.

The skin-skin of a female bison - “cawl” - is thinner, more elastic and more elastic than the skin-skin of male bisons. In appearance it is smoother and more beautiful. The cowhide skin on the neck and belly of a female bison is thinner than on the backbone. The uppers of leather shoes, soles, heels, welts, lining soles and light straps are made from cowhide leather.

The skin of a young male bison - “bull” - is, as a rule, uniformly thick and resistant to all sorts of influences. With age, the “bull” on the neck and belly of a male bison thickens and becomes loose. The same thing is made from “bull meat” as “cowhide” is made from hide-skin.

The hide-skin of a well-developed adult male bison - “bugai” - is the heaviest, thickest and most durable among all such hides. The rough skin is usually thick, rough and loose. The skin on the neck of a bull bison is thicker than on the backbone. However, the older the animal, the less resistant its skin is to environmental influences. Bugay skin is used for the manufacture of almost all leather technical products.

About what and how primitive people of this and subsequent times did or could make from the skins and skins of bison and other animals and beasts, in particular from rawhide, in the subsequent chapters of the “Chronology...”.

Reviews

Plagiarism from Wikipedia without citing sources. Moreover, the author transfers the realities of the 19th and 20th centuries. into the Paleolithic, as he imagines it. He has no real knowledge about leatherworking and other things. Therefore, the text represents the author’s fantasies on the topic.

Dear Sergey Konovalov 3.

Unfortunately, you were arrogantly mistaken in your review and ratings.

You probably identified yourself in this review as “the author of the “Rawhide” Wikipedia article,” which I did not use when working on my work. There are more authoritative and comprehensive primary sources for this.

Your claim that my work is “plagiarized from Wikipedia without citing sources” is unsubstantiated.

Your statement that “the author transfers the realities of the 19th and 20th centuries to the Paleolithic” is also unsubstantiated, since the technology of processing and dressing rawhide undoubtedly, historically and naturally “came” to us in modern times from the Paleolithic.

Your statement that the author “has no real knowledge about leatherworking and other things”, unfortunately, is unsubstantiated, contradicts the facts presented in my work and betrays your personal irritability and hypertrophied self-suspiciousness.

As for the “author’s fantasies on the topic,” you are partly right - my work “Chronology of the history of human development” is “an experience in reconstructing the sequence of historical events in time and space in correlation with solar activity” and is published on the server of literary prose works.

Therefore, thank you, dear Sergey Konovalov 3, for your response, but from now on I ask you in your reviews and judgments to comply with the high level of authorship of articles of such a unique Internet education as Wikipedia.

With hope for mutual understanding A.S. Suvorov

Since Wikipedia works on communist principles, this is not about my personal copyright, but about your failure to indicate Wikipedia as the primary source. The text in "Rawhide" was created "from the head." Other sources simply do not have those offers and turnovers. I won't confuse them with anything. Moreover, everything is copied, right down to the content in brackets. Everyone can be convinced of this.

As for factual errors, they could be discussed in detail in one of the historical forums. I am present on “New Herodotus” and “History.Ru”. If it’s about leather, then you mechanically transferred information from other Wikipedia articles on leatherworking to the Paleolithic. But in reality, all the above terminology refers to modern factory production, where cattle hides serve as raw materials. It is impossible to transfer this to the Paleolithic, where there were not even the simplest metal tools. And you just took and replaced cows and bulls with bison. How thick is bison skin? What about the mammoth and rhinoceros? And we need to talk about rawhide in the Paleolithic very, very carefully. But you poorly understand the meaning of the terms used and do not grasp important nuances.
Sergey 6662.

Dear Sergey Konovalov 3 or Sergey 6662.

Unfortunately, you are again just saying something with errors, asserting and accusing “out of your head”, but not providing evidence.

At the same time, it is very, very careless, since you, judging by the automatic registration of readers on the Proza.ru server, have read only one of the chapters of my “Chronology”. The previous chapters provide answers to many of your confusions.

I hope you “understand the meaning of the terms used”, “caught this nuance” and can provide here - in the place of your review - any facts confirming your statements and accusations.

Try to offer your version of the undoubted technology of extraction, use, processing and dressing of hides, skins and, in particular, rawhide by primitive people, different from the traditional technology set out in the “Chronology”...

By the way, in Internet search engines the word “raw meat”, including a list of its types and names, opens 13,000 links to various sites, including specialized encyclopedias and reference books for furriers and tanners.

Perhaps your “head” drew its terms and definitions for the Wikipedia article from there?

Your plagiarism is all over the place. I am not going to transfer both articles here in full and compare them. I’ll take just one sentence, because there aren’t even anything similar to it on any tanners’ websites, or indeed in the relevant literature. It's just "out of my head". But, of course, it is based on knowledge of ethnographic realities.

For you: “Rawhide (skin) differs from all other types of isolated leather (skin) in that it remains actually edible, that is, raw natural skin (skin). Therefore, it can be eaten in hungry years and times...”

From Wikipedia: “An important property of rawhide is that it remains essentially the same raw leather, that is, a completely edible product. Therefore, in difficult situations, things were cooked and eaten from it.”

I looked not only at this section, but also at several others. Everywhere is full of errors. And for your own benefit, we have to waste time and explain that it is ridiculous to transfer not only to the Paleolithic, but also to the tribes of our time, the terminology that is used, according to GOST, in tanneries. If you have the desire, you can make out every word. Naturally, this is not the place for that. You can rest assured of my competence, because I am both an archaeologist and a tanner. I would advise you to familiarize yourself with the works of the laboratory of practical archeology of S. A. Semenov. By the way, the list of references on Wikipedia is also given for a reason.
Sergey 6662.

Dear Sergey Konovalov 2 or Sergey 6662.

It seems that you seriously believe that your (possibly) words “from your head” in the Wikipedia article are the primary source in describing the properties of rawhide... and without your words and authorship, no one ever knew or knew that it could be eaten.

Unfortunately, you were again mistaken in your conceit and again indiscriminately assert that I am “full of mistakes everywhere.”

As for modern terminology in describing the technologies of the historical past, I warned readers about this in advance in the previous chapters of the Chronology.

Unfortunately, I, and perhaps the readers, have to doubt your competence as an “archaeologist and tanner” signed “Sergei 6662”.

I don’t have time to read your demagoguery. If you doubt my competence, then do not use my work. Throw out all the Wikipedia article texts from your work. Or use it without distorting the meaning, indicating the source. The main thing is that readers will now know what they are dealing with.
Sergey 6662. information about the portal and contact the administration.

The daily audience of the Proza.ru portal is about 100 thousand visitors, who in total view more than half a million pages according to the traffic counter, which is located to the right of this text. Each column contains two numbers: the number of views and the number of visitors.

Tanning hides at home

It is a sin to throw away the skin taken from the carcass of a killed animal, be it a trophy of a successful hunt, a domestic goat, sheep or nutria. Discover a cheap and simple method of tanning hides that I believe is accessible to everyone. I use it for skins from sheep, deer, marmots, rabbits and goats. But the method is suitable for tanning the skins of all mammals, especially if you want to preserve the fur. After such dressing, the skin becomes soft and easy to work with, for example, for making things that require cutting and sewing.

Sprinkle salt on raw skins

The raw skin, just removed from the carcass, must be cooled after removing any remaining meat and fat from its inside. To cool, the skin is spread in the shade on a completely flat surface, for example, on a concrete or stone floor, with the wool facing down.

When you feel that the skin has cooled to the touch, immediately pour non-iodized table salt onto its inner side (the inner side). To process sheep or deer hide you will need 1.5 to 2.5 kg of salt. If the skins are not salted immediately after skinning the carcasses, they will be lost. The decomposition process will begin and the skins will lose their fur during further processing.

The skin should lie on a flat surface and its edges should not curl. When dragging the skin, do not stretch it. If some of the salt falls off the surface of the flesh, add it without skimping. The salt should absorb moisture so that the skin is completely dry and crispy. The process can take from several days to a couple of weeks. Completely dried skin retains both its shape and quality well.

What is needed for tanning hides?
If you are ready to start tanning hides, prepare in advance everything you need for this:

26.5 L water, 1 kg (16 cups) flaked bran, 16 cups regular non-iodized salt, 2 large 114 L plastic tubs and 1 lid, 1 1.2 m long wooden stick for stirring solution and turning hides, 3.5 cups car battery acid, 2 packs baking soda, wooden grate or flooring for stretching hides, hoof oil, nails, wire brush.

The indicated quantities are calculated for the production of four skins of large animals, or 10 rabbit skins, or 6 skins of medium-sized animals, for example, marmots. To tan a smaller number of hides, adjust the indicated numbers.

Solution for tanning hides

A few hours before you plan to start dressing, dry skins should be immersed in fresh, clear water and soaked until they become elastic.

Boil 11.5 liters of water and pour it over the bran. After an hour, when the flakes have steamed well, place them on a sieve to strain out the brownish infusion. Bring the remaining 15 liters of water to a boil. Pour 16 cups of salt into a plastic vat, add boiling water and stir thoroughly with a wooden stick until the salt is completely dissolved. Pour the brownish infusion of bran into salt water and stir the resulting liquid.

When the liquid has cooled and becomes lukewarm, add car battery acid to it. Observe the precautions indicated on the label of the acid bottle. Wear old gloves and a long-sleeved shirt when working with acid. Pour the acid carefully, holding the bottle above the very surface of the solution and do not allow it to splash. Stir the resulting mixture thoroughly.

Now you can start cleaning the dry flesh. When dressing fresh skins, this procedure can be omitted. Immerse the skins in the solution and stir. The skins must be completely covered with liquid in order to be thoroughly saturated with it. The skins must be kept in the solution for about 40 minutes, periodically stirring them with a stick to ensure even soaking.

Fill the second plastic vat with clean, warm water and begin rinsing the skins. Remove all the skins from the solution one by one, using a wooden stick, and place them in a container with clean water - you need to wash off the excess salt from the skins. In order for the skins to be washed better, they need to be stirred and patted with a stick for 5 minutes, and when the water becomes dirty, change it to clean.

Some people add baking soda to the rinse water to neutralize any remaining acid in the hide. This allows you to protect people with sensitive skin from possible irritation. But on the other hand, this neutralizes the acid that was used specifically to preserve the skin. Therefore, before pouring soda into the vat to wash the tanned hides, decide for what purpose you will use them. If the skin or fur is expected to come into contact with human skin, then you need to rinse it in water and soda. And if the skin is thrown on the floor like a carpet, or hung on the wall, then, in my opinion, you don’t need to add soda when rinsing.

The washed skins must be hung on a stable and strong crossbar so that the water can drain from them. Then saturate a sponge, rag or brush with hoof oil and apply the oil to the still wet flesh. For this you will need 30 g of hoof oil. It will be absorbed very quickly into the flesh, leaving only a light oily coating.

Now the skin needs to be stretched onto a wooden grid or flooring. When nailing the hide to the flooring, gently stretch it so that the tension on the leather is felt, but not too much. Move the flooring with the stretched skin into the shade to dry.

Do not pour out the acidic solution remaining after tanning the hides without neutralizing it. To neutralize the acid, two packs of soda are enough. During the reaction, the solution will begin to foam strongly and release toxic gas. Therefore, it is better to do this in a room with good ventilation and stand away from the vat. Do not pour the solution near the drain.

During the drying period, the skins must be checked daily. When the flesh in the center feels dry, elastic and soft to the touch, remove the skin from the flooring, lay it fur side down and go over the flesh with a wire brush. Thanks to this procedure, the skin becomes softer and lighter. Don't brush too hard or rub any one area of ​​the hide. Just try to give the flesh a suede-like appearance. After this, the skin needs to be hung for a couple of days for final drying.

Last tip

Once your friends find out that you know how to dress hides, be prepared for the fact that you will have a constant stream of people wanting to take advantage of your abilities. If you cannot refuse your friends such a service, then at least do not do it for free. Industrial tanning of hides costs between $25 and $45 each, and your service should be reasonably priced, even if the money you receive is only enough to buy a case of beer. Otherwise, the hunters will drag you all their trophies, overwhelm you with work and deprive you of the opportunity to do other things.

It is possible that someone will use the services of professionals to find out what mistakes you made, or how much your service may cost. People really value their own skins, and this warning will help you avoid misunderstandings and maintain good relations with your friends.