Advertising in antiquity and its importance in society. History of the emergence and development of advertising Antique advertiser who signed his advertising inscriptions

Chapter 2. Advertising in ancient society

Social factors in advertising formation:

Advertising of spectacles: poster
Political advertising
Elements of confessional advertising
Ways to regulate the advertising process in antiquity
General conclusions
Control questions

Social factors in the formation of advertising: the culture of urbanism

When does professional advertising activity actually begin? Here we are approaching a turning point in culture, directly affecting not only advertisers, but also journalists and any figures in mass communications. The process of professionalization of advertising coincides with the period of formation of mass information as a phenomenon: advertising is its offshoot.

When does a need for mass information arise in society? In a situation where interpersonal contacts cannot ensure the information well-being of the community. When interpersonal and neighborly connections do not provide the necessary minimum of awareness needed to coordinate activities. This happens when local settlements are replaced by a type of urban culture. The totality of all processes occurring in the city creates a culture of urbanism.

The emergence at the stage of urbanism of a certain new information mechanism - the message of something to everyone living in a given urban-type settlement, without a specific address, is associated with quantitative parameters. If at most three thousand people live in a rural community, and in early communities, as a rule, even less, then cities, even the earliest ones, record from five thousand to one million inhabitants. A million inhabitants - in the most prosperous cities, such as Babylon or ancient Rome.

The city is formed around three information centers. The first is administrative leadership. The administrative apparatus may meet in different buildings of different configurations. Its essence is managerial leadership in a given urban community, which in antiquity - Greek and Roman - was called the word “polis”.

The second center that united the life of the polis was the temple complex. Here the temple, in contrast to pre-urban forms, is created in the very “heart” of the urban settlement.

The third is a shopping area, a market. No matter how diverse the concepts of temple and market look, it is nevertheless interesting to discover that these seemingly diametrical formations - the purely earthly and the sublime - coexist. They follow each other very closely throughout all centuries until modern times. Therefore, no matter how lofty the aspirations of those who visit the temple, what they need for survival is sold nearby. Market - commercial and domestic concentration of interests of urban residents

Isolating professional advertising from proto advertising texts
The difference between proto-advertising and professional advertising is a very important point in understanding these phenomena. It lies in the fact that the phenomenon of proto-advertising is syncretic; it uses the entire set of sign functions. The process of professionalization is accompanied by the selection of those functions that concentrate specifically on advertising tasks. At first, this process occurs on the basis of oral speech communication.

When oral speech is formed in the human community, what cultural scientists call the first information revolution occurs - this is the situation of the emergence of speech communication in the pre-human community (since without language it is not yet a fully human community).

Initially, verbal communication is syncretic: it combines various social functions, namely: informational, regulatory, expressive, etc. But gradually in oral culture the types of texts serving different kinds activities: ritual, industrial, aesthetic, etc.

The importance of signaling type communication was briefly discussed in the previous chapter. Let us repeat: a signal is a way of instantly attracting the attention of an individual or community to any phenomenon in order to encourage them to take prompt action. This role has been played by symbolic means from time immemorial right up to the present day - it’s worth remembering traffic lights on the streets of modern cities or the shout “Stop! Hands up!"

Expression of symbolic means - this is their emotional expressiveness and richness, a quality without which it is difficult to imagine full-fledged advertising.

Suggestion- suggestion. This is the ability of some iconic forms and their combinations to influence not only consciousness and emotions, but also the subconscious of recipients. Suggestion has been present in advertising messages since the earliest stage of the formation of this type of text.

The combination of these three functional prerequisites for operational impact on a wide audience initially occurs spontaneously, unconsciously. The practical effectiveness of such combinations leads to more and more purposeful use of them by emerging professionals

Heralds are the first advertising professionals
In antiquity, urban communities became professional carriers of the advertising word. heralds. In our opinion, it was in the course of their activities that stable samples of advertising texts were developed and their typological structure was formed. The position of heralds is recorded by archaeological sources already during the period of the Cretan-Mycenaean culture around the 14th century BC. 1

The active role of heralds in ancient society is recorded in a wide range of artistic and literary works. Let's take a look at the comedies of Aristophanes - rarely of them does without a character called the “herald”. Famous historians constantly mention this position: Herodotus, Polybius, Tacitus, Plutarch, Suetonius. In ancient Greek city policies, the position of herald had several branches. Some of them carried out diplomatic assignments and were obligatory participants in various embassies. Fulfilling this mission was very honorable and extremely responsible. Among the Lacedaemonians, for example, according to Herodotus, this position was inherited from father to son and was traced back to the legendary messenger of King Agamemnon - Talthybius.

In other Greek city-states, heralds were elected by the people's assembly by voting or by lot. In addition to ambassadorial functions, a less aristocratic layer of heralds was at the disposal of the city administration and communicated to the city population the most important operational information, both business, commercial, and political.

And finally, the least prestigious layer of heralds served at market sales, served with artistic troupes, and were clients of private individuals. The herald's rank was demonstrated by his attire and attributes. The most privileged owned a staff - the caduceus, belonging to the messenger of the gods Mercury. But it was more convenient for ordinary town criers to have some kind of sound instrument - a horn or a bell, whose call signs attracted the people.

The position of the herald implied prompt notification of all citizens of the city about generally significant events: the next date of the national assembly, visits to important embassies, the triumphs of famous commanders, the distribution of bread to poor members of the community or upcoming gladiatorial games.

1 Kumanetsky K. Cultural history of Ancient Greece and Rome. - M., 1990. P. 27.

Genre differentiation of oral advertising in the ancient city
The core of these alerts was a short information block, which constituted a genre in both ancient and modern culture advertisements. Let us repeat once again - the purpose of this genre is a signal to the general public about the presence of important facts, events, processes at such and such a time. The announcement forms the core of a wide family of information genres - business, political, religious. It is the necessary basis for a developed advertising text. Flow into advertising sphere oral announcements occur when the initial signaling function of the message concentrates elements of expression (emotional expressiveness) and suggestion (suggestion).

Increased expression in short message transforms a “just” announcement into the genre of an appeal (call). This is where the circle of action of reclamare is outlined - a call of appeal, different from neutral impartial notification.

The addition of a suggestive-imperative tone to the information core is typical for heralds shouting edicts, decrees, and municipal orders, for failure to comply with which, as a rule, sanctions are imposed.

This is how the initial differentiation of text types occurs in the daily activities of heralds. And gradually the elements of expression and suggestion in oral advertising, as well as the focus on demonstrativeness in the object-visual version of this activity, acquire the character of professional techniques.

About great value social role herald, its popularity is evidenced, in particular, by the fulfillment of this position (albeit in combination with a number of others) by the highly revered Olympian deity Mercury. He was called the sonorous one - a sign that a professional herald could hardly do without. Apuleius tells how Mercury played the role of a herald in his famous story “The Golden Ass”.

According to the plot of the insert story about the love of Cupid and Psyche, the heroine tries to hide from the angry Venus, who is trying to prevent the unequal marriage of her son Cupid and a mortal girl. For a worldwide search for the fugitive, the powerful Olympian calls on brother Mercury and tells him: “...I have no choice but to publicly announce through your herald what kind of indication, where she is ( Psyche - auto) located, a reward will be issued. So, hurry up with my instructions, and list in detail the signs by which you can recognize her, so that the one guilty of illegal concealment cannot excuse himself by ignorance.” 2 . With these words, the goddess handed over to Mercury a sheet containing the name of Psyche and her signs.

“Mercury was not slow to obey. Running around all nations, he proclaimed this everywhere, fulfilling the task entrusted to him: If anyone returns from hiding or can indicate the place where the fugitive, the royal daughter, the servant of Venus named Psyche, is hiding, let him announce this to the herald Mercury... And in the form He will receive rewards for the message from Venus herself, seven sweet kisses and one more honey..." 3

It is clear that this episode from the life of the Olympians models the frequent “earthly” situation associated with the escape of male and female slaves from their masters, and the role played by the herald in their search. The text of the announcement proclaimed by Mercury has the character of a detailed advertisement. Let's pay attention to the beginning of the message: “if anyone” in Latin - "siquis". This phrase became a stable cliché in short advertisements and became widespread in Europe in the 13th-14th centuries. Factors of expression and suggestion are compressed into a premium bait, which is very tempting for ancient tastes (and partly for modern ones as well).

So, under the pen of Apuleius, a professional of ancient advertising and an expressive example of advertising text are presented to us in full growth.

Alternating with the cries of heralds authorized by the city authorities on the streets of ancient cities were the calls of traveling merchants, the enticing jokes of magicians and jugglers, and the rhetorically pompous declamations of traveling preachers - ministers of various cults.

The famous Roman philosopher Lucius Annaeus Seneca wrote about the incessant noise coming from the streets of Rome to his friend Lucillius: “Now there is a multi-voiced cry around me: after all, I live right above the bathhouse... If ball players appear and start counting throws, then it’s all over. Add to this the squabble, and catching a thief, and those who like the sound of their own voice... Add those who plop into the pool with a deafening splash... In addition, there are also cake makers, and sausage makers, and sweets sellers and all sorts of dishes, each calling out the goods in its own way" 4 .

What is the nature of these “screams”? We can judge them from a later time, since in ancient culture there were no records of such fleeting calls. However, a trace of them still remained in the works of ancient authors. The same Apuleius tells how, wearing the skin of a donkey (the result of careless handling of a magic potion), he found himself in the market with other beasts of burden brought up for sale. For the prompt sale of a consignment of goods, a herald was also hired to operate within the market. He “in a loud voice he named the price of each individual.” The bargaining began, but the obstinacy of the donkey, who remembered his human life, repelled buyers. “Then the herald, his throat strained and hoarse, began to make funny jokes, glorifying my virtues.” 5

Judging by the author's comments, the jokes were full of humor and practical jokes. A crowd gathered around not so much of buyers as of listeners to an everyday scene. And, attracted by friendly laughter to the place of sale, a servant of a certain Syrian goddess appeared, finally acquiring a donkey. Inventive improvised folk advertising had the desired effect: the deal was done.

This example is another illustration of the build-up of expressive and suggestive “shells” around the information core, which is a laconic message about the subject of advertising. In oral versions of texts, in addition to the stylistics of verbal constructions, the melodic accompaniment of “shouts”, their rhythmic organization, the use of rhyme, as well as a set of real or invented arguments that convince the counterparty of the advisability of the action to which the advertising appeal calls him, enhances expression and suggestion. . Among such means of persuasion, which turn into psychological pressure, are various oaths, piety, references to witnesses, which include neighbors at the counter and representatives of the highest authorities. For example: “May thunder strike me if I’m lying!” and so on.

The above exclamation, not alien to the lips and ears of our contemporaries, directly goes back to one of the most common ancient oaths; “I swear by Zeus!” - in Greece or "By Jove!"- in Rome. Everyone knew that the Thunderer would find the oathbreaker - if not instantly, then over time. But oaths - as a building block of market advertising - still flourished widely everywhere. Even among the laconic Lacedaemonians.

We know about this from the story of the famous Hellenic historian Herodotus. According to him, the Persian ruler Cyrus, preparing for war with Hellas, arrogantly received the envoys of Sparta. He said, in particular: “I am not afraid of people who have a certain place in the middle of the city where people gather, deceiving each other and making false oaths.” 6 . This is how the Persian perceived, according to the reports of his spies, what was happening in the market squares of Hellenic cities, capturing for us the style of advertising appeals.

This style irritated the most enlightened citizens. In particular, the great philosopher Plato, reflecting on the laws of the ideal state he was projecting, planned: “And let there be no praise or swearing about any item for sale. The first citizen who has reached thirty years of age to disobey him has the right to beat him with impunity, punishing him for his oaths. Whoever neglects this right of his will be subjected to blasphemy for treason against the laws. If anyone is unable to obey our current words and begins to sell if something is fake, then the first person who finds out about it should expose it, if only he can, before the rulers...

A seller caught in counterfeiting, in addition to losing his counterfeit goods, will also be punished by the herald in the market square with as many blows of the whip as the number of drachmas he demands for his goods, and the herald will announce why he is being punished.” 7 .

Plato hoped to introduce such rules in the future ideal state. However, even in the real conditions in which Greek policies developed, there were legislative measures to regulate the advertising process, which we will discuss at the end of this chapter.

2 Apuleius Metamorphoses. In XI books. - M., 1959. P. 193.

3 Right there.

4 Seneca L.A. Moral letters to Lucillius. - M., 1977. P. 93.

5 Apuleius Metamorphoses. In XI books. - M., 1959. P. 279.

6 Herodotus Story. In IX books. - M, 1993. P. 60.

7 Plato Laws. Op. in 3 volumes - M., 1972. T. 3, part 2. P. 416.

Options for visual advertising in antiquity
If we can judge the features of oral advertising in antiquity by indirect data, then its visual types have partially reached us directly. These are some examples of artistic signs and emblems of artisans, imprinted on many objects of pottery production. Signs have come down to us in two versions: marble reliefs have been found that have a signboard character, and their picturesque analogues were discovered during excavations of the city of Pompeii, which perished under the lava of Vesuvius in 79 AD. e. The nature of the eruption was such that many objects of the ancient city were preserved rather than destroyed.

Let's talk about the signs discovered in Pompeii further. Here we will focus on one of the examples marble relief, having a signboard character. The relief depicts an artisan goldsmith: “A young man in a belted tunic with sleeves rolled up to the elbows sits in front of an anvil placed on a block of wood, and with a double hammer... hits a strip of metal that lies on the anvil and which he holds with his left hand. There are scales on the wall above the gold mine; Behind the block of wood, five objects are placed one on top of the other, gradually decreasing from the floor upward. Each of them resembles two deep plates, of which the upper one is overturned onto the lower one.” 8 .

This description belongs to the famous researcher of antiquity M.E. Sergeenko. She joins the opinion of her colleagues that the image advertised the place of a prestigious craft - the processing of precious metals, and was a sign. Interpretations differ as to what kind of objects are sculptured in the background of the relief. Some believe that these are metal ingots awaiting processing, others that these are packages of finished products 9 . For the inhabitants of ancient Rome, where the bas-relief was displayed, it was probably quite clear what this monumental sign depicted.

In Pompeii, less heavy signs were discovered, painted on the walls or on special boards. The most common types of services in this city were taverns, guest courtyards, and taverns. Sources report that there were 20 taverns on the central street of the city, which archaeologists called the Stabieva Road and occupies 770 meters. In total, there were about 140 establishments of this kind in Pompeii. It is clear that they competed, and the owners tried to decorate them in every possible way in order to charm and attract passers-by.

Among such attempts there are signs that can be compared with modern comic books. They represent a set of pictorial situations that explain what a warrior will receive if he enters the doors that are wide open to him. Two pictures on one side of the doors, two pictures on the other. First, the washing of the feet of a tired traveler is depicted. Another picture shows how he is treated - a table and treats. The third depicts how he will be seen off to rest. Charming women lead the guest; depending on his desire, they will stay or leave the place where he can indulge in rest, which is depicted in the fourth episode.

In addition to such picturesque signs were widely used in antiquity subject And subject-symbolic options. In the first case, the “signboard” was the product itself, put on public display: sets of clay vessels near a potter’s shop or a bottle of incense on the perfumer’s window. Nowadays, this method of displaying goods is hidden behind display windows and displayed in all its glory on in-store shelves.

More curious variant of subject-symbolic solutions when a direct image of a product is replaced by another object that is functionally close to it.

There was a millstone near the bakers' shops. An object associated with grinding, and from bread as if a distant phenomenon. But if you are accustomed to seeing a millstone and knowing that there is bread there, no questions arise.

The role of an ordinary military shield, which served as a sign for a tavern, hotel, or inn, is noteworthy. The shield is a symbol that was displayed by the owners of these establishments, indicating the opportunity to relax and be protected.

Even more curious is the symbol of ivy as an indicator of the wine trade. There is probably an association of similarity here, since ivy and wild grapes are similar.

Techniques of pictorial symbolization were widely used to invent brand names, which ancient artisans used to mark their products. Especially many such examples have come down to us on pottery items: amphoras, pithoi, vases or on their fragments. The number of such litters known today is in the thousands. Among them, antiquists distinguish four groups of images: 1) various objects: tripod, hammer, halberd; 2) plants: branches, wreaths, flowers; 3) animals: bull, horse, lion, elephant, dog; 4) images of deities in human form 10 .

Many of these emblems were accompanied by inscriptions. Some of them are deciphered as the names of the owners of the workshops, some are the names of the city caretakers - astynom.

In antiquity, the place of extensive ceramic production was the city of Chersonesus on the territory of modern Crimea. Among the huge number of archaeological finds, lamps, fishing weights, tiles, amphorae and other items marked with the marks of masters were discovered. The predominant form of marks here was a monogram or the initial letters of the name - their pictorial accompaniment is relatively rare. Nevertheless, the researchers came to the confident conclusion that the studied marks “were a kind of factory mark... The marks were applied by the craftsmen themselves in order to familiarize buyers with their products.” 11 .

As it turned out, even the ancient walls of Chersonesos are made of stone blocks, marked with the signature marks of stonemasons dating back to the end of the 5th century BC. e.

We mentioned in the previous chapter the developed desire of the figures of antiquity to imprint their deeds for a long time in the memory of their descendants, based on the sad fate (partly caused by this desire) that befell the sculptor Phidias. On a number of colorful frescoes in Pompeian interiors, archaeologists find the signature “Lucillius,” which further indicates the rootedness of the author’s emblems and signatures in the created works.

Object-pictorial techniques of syncretic proto-advertising representation made themselves known in the ancient era during triumphal processions, solemn processions, and religious festivals, which we will discuss further.

Here we turn to familiarize ourselves with the types of written advertising in antiquity.

8 Sergeenko M. E.

9 Sergeenko M. E. Craftsmen of Ancient Rome. - L., 1968. P. 39.

10 Trakov B. N. Ancient Greek ceramic stamps with the names of astynomoi. - M., 1929. P. 86.

11 Akhmerov R. B. About the marks of ceramic masters of Hellenistic Chersonesus // Bulletin ancient history. - 1951, No. 3. P. 78.

Written advertising: graffiti, album, Roman proto-newspaper
Cultural scientists associate the second information revolution with the formation of written communication. Researchers differ in the chronological interpretation of the period of the formation of writing. This is approximately the 6th millennium BC. e. The most ancient written materials have reached us so far from the 4th millennium BC. e. But since developed writing belongs to these dates, we can assume that some time was spent on the development of writing. The oldest written texts were found during excavations in the city of Sumer (Babylonia). They date back to approximately 3700 BC. e. This gives the right to some advertising historians to talk about six thousand years of its existence. In particular, this is the opinion of the German researcher Hans Buchli, the creator of a four-volume book dedicated to advertising and propaganda, which was published in Berlin in the 60s of the 20th century. The author calls his multi-volume work “Six thousand years of advertising,” meaning the current two thousand years of modern times and those same four thousand years BC. e., which can be pointed to as the period of the presence of written texts 12 .

The actual written advertising texts found by archaeologists are dated to later periods. These are, first of all, spontaneous autographs left by ordinary residents of ancient cities on the walls of houses, temples, porticos, etc. The main documentary evidence of the presence graffiti are inscriptions that were removed by archaeologists and cultural historians from the walls of Pompeii. Graffiti is the scratching by any city resident on walls, porticos, buildings of their opinions, calls, considerations, or simply a statement about themselves that does not carry generally valid information.

Graffiti are syncretic formations, since among them there are both advertising texts that carry professional traces of typical advertisements, and inscriptions that are not directly related to the advertisement. This could be lyrical reflections, a stanza of a poem, a declaration of love. Similar inscriptions still fill European cities today. It appears that graffiti is a form of personal self-promotion. Even in the case when it is written: “Rita and Vova were in this place,” one can detect a typical unconscious manifestation of self-affirmation.

Among the spontaneous inscriptions, professionally oriented ones are gradually emerging. For example: “Pedestrian, go from here to the twelfth tower. Sarikus runs a wine cellar there. Look there. See you" 13 .

Or: “Drinks are priceless here. For two asses you’ll drink the best, but for four you’ll already be drinking Falernian.” 14 .

Thermae (ancient baths), a favorite place of relaxation for Roman citizens, were advertised very energetically. The calls to indulge in rest read like this: “With Faustina’s income, the bathhouse washes according to city custom and offers all services.” Other graffiti suggests removing: “The villa is good and well built. The employer should contact the crab so and so...” The following is a drawing that gives an idea of the quality of the advertised housing.

In antiquity, papyrus and wax tablets were also forms of distribution of written announcements. The British Museum contains a papyrus containing two texts related to the sale of people. Trade in living goods constitutes the largest array in the advertisements of ancient cities.

So, about the slave: “He hears perfectly with both ears, sees with both eyes. I guarantee you his abstinence in food, honesty and humility." 15 .

Tiny text, but what an abundance of information. How much disdain there is for a person as a thing. The characteristic features that the seller highlights are: the unpretentiousness of the slave, on the one hand, and on the other hand, his ability to obligingly obey what the future owner wants.

The text dedicated to a slave put up for sale is even more expressive: “What an elastic body. Isn't this the right girl for you? I guarantee her innocence." 16 .

A text specific to the trade in slaves, who were purchased not only for work, but also for other services. And it is unlikely that in any ancient house there was at least one slave who did not experience the intimate demands of the owner and his numerous servants.

An even higher degree of professionalization in written advertising is revealed by such a specific phenomenon of antiquity as album. The word "album" comes from the concept of "white". In the Roman era, the phenomenon of album - represented areas on city walls, on spacious parts of houses, which were whitewashed with white paint or lime so that current notices could be written on them. Thus, in Pompeii, on the eastern side of the Forum, there is a building of impressive size. It housed a fulling workshop. The inscription stated that the building was erected with funds from the widow of a textile merchant on behalf of her and her son. The wall of this workshop facing the Forum consisted of several writing areas separated by columns. They were whitewashed, and next to them stood a vessel with black paint and a writing implement. Album was served by those assigned for this matter dealbatores(literally: “whiteners”). As soon as the white areas were completely covered with operational announcements, the servants took up their duties and the completely whitewashed wall again played the role of an advertising medium.

At the same time, in antiquity this word denoted the activities of heralds, i.e. already in Ancient Rome or Ancient Greece we see the prerequisites for the professionalization of advertisers. The herald is not just a certain individual, this is the name given to those who were involved in advertising professionally, i.e. not on your own behalf, but on behalf of the client. The client could be the state ( government bodies), local authorities, as they are now called, or merchants, artisans, who were represented in many Greek and Roman cities. These people produced products primarily for sale, and they needed a herald to attract buyers.

The oral form of advertising predominated, and heralds were usually considered professionals of a fairly high degree; in particular, in Ancient Rome, heralds were divided according to the nature of the orders they carried out. For example, there were heralds related to diplomacy, i.e. announcing the arrival of important guests, etc. The second type of herald was less honorable; they belonged to the rank of private ones, and they pronounced texts that conveyed the most important operational information to the city population: business, commercial, political.

In addition to oral advertising, pictorial symbolization was also widely used, in particular, in the invention of symbolic signs with which ancient artisans marked their products. They left various images, mostly of a geometric nature. But this was only the case at first; later these brand names became more complex, and especially many similar examples have come down to us on pottery items, such as amphorae and vases. In general, there are four groups of images:

1) various objects, for example, a tripod, a hammer, a halberd;
2) plants: branches, wreaths, flowers;
3) animals, for example, bull, elephant, dog, horse, lion;
4) images of deities in human form, which was very typical of antiquity.

Many of these emblems were accompanied by inscriptions, some of which were deciphered as the names of workshop owners or individual artisans.

Text advertising played a smaller role in antiquity than oral advertising, since most of the inhabitants of Ancient Rome and Ancient Greece were illiterate. However, it was possible to rely on them to a lesser extent, since free citizens, of course, were literate and had the opportunity to read certain advertising inscriptions. These advertising inscriptions were placed by creating graffiti. "Graffiti" - this word comes from the Italian "graffito" - scratched. Graffiti could be scratched on the walls or written with paint, most often black or red. To make the graffiti stand out better, they were placed on albums. Album is a white wall built specifically for advertisements.

The appearance of posters should also be attributed to the ancient period. In particular, in the excavated city of Pompeii, graffiti-style inscriptions were discovered on the walls, which are the ancestors of modern posters. A poster differs from an announcement in the level of detail of information: the announcement should be brief, as if compressed, while the poster allows itself many details that will be of interest to citizens.

A broad definition - which, in our opinion, is a great advantage against the backdrop of many modern attempts to narrow the concept of advertising to its narrow corporate, workshop meaning. Popular dictionaries, as a rule, contain textbook truths, which are very useful not to be lost in the heat of debate.

Adherents of trade and commercial advertising behave most aggressively in theoretical disputes. In describing this branch of advertising, they do not want to know anything about other powerful branches of the advertising tree. Meanwhile, this tree is very branchy.

We will give a definition of one of the branches - trade advertising - without delay. This is “the popularization of goods for the purpose of selling them, creating demand for them, familiarizing consumers with the quality, features and place of sale of goods, and explaining how to consume them.”

Throughout the world since ancient times, and in Russia since the 18th century, the industry of political advertising has confidently asserted itself. What means did she use and with what success? We will try to answer these questions.

The once thriving religious advertising is making a comeback in our society.

And what is the current abundance of advertisements about the desire to meet or get married? Is this sector compatible with what is traditionally called the “service sector”? In our opinion, no.

The institution of heralds is the bottom of the most ancient institutions state power. These positions are recorded in various ancient states. On European territory, tablets with a list of professions, which also include heralds, were found during excavations in the centers of the Cretan-Mycenaean culture dating back to the 14th century BC. What was the purpose of this profession? For everyday information of large crowds of people, which were already the case in ancient cities.

In many cases, under the guise of state orders - edicts - purely political appeals and denunciations were made. Of course, much more often the heralds informed the population of generally significant information: about the honoring of famous commanders, about embassies arriving in the city, about the next distribution of bread or a grandiose circus performance. In these advertisements, generally relevant information is closely intertwined with advertising.

The heralds were also instructed to promptly notify the population about citizens being summoned to court, about sentences passed and upcoming executions. Over time, this area of notification formed an offshoot of legal advertising, which has become so active and effective today.

shouts of barkers in places where goods and services are constantly offered;
calls from peddlers, intermediaries in the provision of various services and wandering artisans;
the complex of advertising means included, in addition to oral speech, various visual elements, including gestures and facial expressions, as well as the organization of a spectacular performance at the appropriate time and place.

Let us touch upon the problem of advertising image, image. According to the general opinion of theorists, this structural element is the core of a real advertising text, which is formed even in a simple, laconic text. The wider the range of attracted – sometimes unconsciously symbolic – means, the more diverse the possibilities for forming an expressive image.

Throughout cultural development, we can trace a certain “desire” of advertising to expand its capabilities not only through the spheres of life that it covers, not only through attracting a particular audience, but through new symbolic, logical, material, technical techniques and funds. Hence the constant desire of advertising creators to consciously or subconsciously integrate into their activities the products of other areas of cultural life and civilization as a whole, to improve and diversify the appearance of advertising images.

In ancient Greece, there was a tradition of marking pottery and art objects with a brand name. Signs of ownership were also used: the brand was burned not only on domestic animals, but also on “animate objects” - slaves.

In this regard, the method adopted by the ancient Romans to confirm the antiquity of the family through wax masks of their ancestors deserves attention. These masks were an integral part of the interior in the homes of Roman aristocrats and were always present at triumphal and religious processions, so frequent in the life of the Romans.

Ancient Greece borrowed the alphabet from the Phoenicians. Along with the latter, the experience of monumental inscriptions was also borrowed.

Herodotus reports that during the era of the Greco-Persian wars, Darius, starting a campaign against Greece, erected “two pillars of white stone, of which on one in Assyrian and on the other in Hellenic letters were carved the names of all the peoples whom he led with him, and led he was all those whom he had dominion over.” Here we again encounter a variant of political advertising - the glorification of the power of Darius in a way that appeals to both contemporaries and descendants. The emotional impact of monumental inscriptions was greatly enhanced by illustrations.

The experience of such a combination of text and drawing has been used in advertising activities up to the present day.

The ancient city of Pompeii, preserved by the lava that flooded it, brought to us more than one and a half thousand such inscriptions. Among them there are many different advertising texts quite modern structure. Modern advertising theorists, not familiar with ancient culture, are inclined to argue that developed advertising activity began only with the birth of printing, i.e. no earlier than the middle of the 15th century. We cannot agree with this. Evidence of this is the abundance and functional diversity of advertising items, the wealth of techniques and means characteristic of ancient advertising. Advertising items in it cover all spheres of life.

Thermae (antique baths) were also advertised favorite place relaxation of Roman citizens: “With the income of Faustina, the bathhouse washes according to city custom and offers all services.” Another graffiti offers to rent a villa “The villa is good and well built. The employer must contact...” What follows is a drawing of the advertised housing.

Intensity of advertising and other mass information processes in the ancient city required specially designated places in the most visited quarters. In many ways, this served as a protective measure against the dominance of advertising, which was sometimes placed in the most inappropriate places. The city authorities warned: “It is forbidden to write here, woe to anyone whose name is mentioned here. May he have no luck."

So, advertising texts are not an invention of the New Age. Their origins go back to primitive antiquity. And in antiquity, already developed advertising activity began. Its main genre is oral announcements, which are a concentrated bundle of operational, generally useful information. The initial form is “overgrown” with a rich set of verbal, sound, and visual techniques that create advertising images (images) and specifically advertising texts, whose goal is to actively delve into the psyche of a potential consumer, attract his attention, awaken desires and expressions of will, and push him to actions beneficial to advertisers. .

The origins of such phenomena as posters, posters, trademarks, advertising campaign also go back to antiquity. They take on more distinct outlines in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.

Advertising has its roots in ancient times. One of the first advertising messages that has reached us is considered to be an ancient Egyptian papyrus, which reports the sale of a slave. The institution of heralds occupies a special place in the history of advertising, since it is, in essence, the first organization involved in advertising. The position of herald was recorded in one form or another in various ancient states. For example, on the territory of what is now Europe, during excavations, tablets were found with a list of professions, which included heralds; these tablets date back to the 14th century. BC.

The profession of a herald served to inform large crowds of people in ancient cities on a daily basis. The heralds informed the population of generally significant information: about the honoring of famous commanders, about embassies arriving in the city, about the next distribution of bread or a grandiose circus performance. In these advertisements general information closely intertwined with advertising.

As is known, in Antiquity and the Middle Ages the spiritual life of society was manifested mainly in oral form. This is confirmed by the predominance of oral versions of advertising texts. Their constant part - the cries of traders - subsequently emerged as a special genre. This area of advertising included a) shouting of barkers in places where goods and services are constantly offered; b) calls for peddlers, middlemen and itinerant artisans to provide various services.

The origins of visual advertising are closely connected with mankind’s mastery of ornament, drawing, and sculpture. In Ancient Greece, there was a tradition of marking pottery and art objects with a brand name. Special signs of ownership (personal property) were also used: the brand was burned on domestic animals and on “animate objects” - slaves. This is how the development of iconic means—techniques of future advertising—happened.

In Antiquity, the role of political visual advertising was played by statues with laudatory inscriptions to rulers, generals, and eminent citizens. Already in the early stages of cultural development, advertising began to appear in the form of written text. Of course, this happened along with the invention of writing itself, which in various regions of the globe dates back to 8-6 thousand BC. Herodotus reports that during the era of the Greco-Persian wars, Darius, starting a campaign against Greece, erected “two pillars of white stone, of which on one in Assyrian and on the other in Hellenic letters were carved the names of all the peoples whom he led with him, and led He was all those whom he had dominion over." Here we encounter a variant of written political advertising - the glorification of the power of Darius.

Antique advertising was very diverse. Advertising items covered almost all spheres of life. For example, “therms” were advertised, i.e. The ancient baths are a favorite place of relaxation for Roman citizens: Faustina uses her income to wash the baths according to city custom and offer all the services. And this is how the “advertising song” intended for women of the ancient city of Athens sounded: So that the eyes shine, so that the cheeks turn red, so that the girl’s beauty is preserved for a long time, a reasonable woman will buy cosmetics at reasonable prices from Exliptos.

The turning point in the history of advertising was the year 1450 - the time of invention by the German Johannes Guttenberg. printing press. The advertiser no longer needed to manually produce additional copies of his notices: now creating advertisements became cheaper, faster, simpler and automated. This brought additional income to the advertiser.

Print advertising first appeared in England in 1478. In 1622, it received a powerful stimulus in the form of the publication of the first newspaper in English language, which was called "Weekly News" ("News of the week"). There were advertisements for razor belts, patented medicines and other consumer goods.

Advertising reached its greatest prosperity in the USA. Benjamin Franklin is called the father of American advertising. His "Gazette", which appeared in 1729, achieved the largest circulation and the largest volume of advertising publications of any newspaper in colonial America. Several factors have contributed to America's emergence as the cradle of advertising. The main one is that American industry led the process of mechanization of production, which created an excess of goods on the shelves and the need to convince consumers to consume more of them. The invention of radio, and subsequently television, meant the emergence of two remarkable means of advertising. There is a well-known saying: “No advertising American economy would fall apart in 15 seconds."

The institution of heralds is the bottom of the most ancient institutions of state power. These positions were recorded in various ancient states. On European territory, tablets with a list of professions, which also include heralds, were found during excavations in the centers of the Cretan-Mycenaean culture dating back to the 14th century BC. What was the purpose of this profession? For everyday information of large crowds of people, which were already the case in ancient cities.

According to the testimony of cultural scientists, in antiquity and the Middle Ages the spiritual life of society was manifested mainly in oral form. This is confirmed by the predominance of oral versions of advertising texts. Their constant part was the cries of traders - which later became a special genre. This area of advertising included:
A) shouts of barkers in places where goods and services are constantly offered;
B) calls from peddlers, intermediaries in the provision of various services and wandering artisans;
The complex of advertising means included, in addition to oral speech, various visual elements, including gestures and facial expressions, as well as the very organization of spectacular action at the appropriate time and place.

Throughout cultural development, we can trace a certain “desire” of advertising to expand its capabilities not only through the spheres of life that it covers, not only through attracting a particular audience, but through new symbolic, logical, material, technical techniques and means. Hence the constant desire of advertising creators to consciously or subconsciously integrate into their activities the products of other areas of cultural life and civilization in general, to improve and diversify the appearance of advertising images.

This process began in ancient times. The origins of visual advertising are closely connected with mankind’s mastery of ornament, drawing, and sculpture.

This is how the development of iconic means and techniques of future advertising took place.

In this regard, the method adopted by the ancient Romans to confirm the antiquity of the family through wax masks of their ancestors deserves attention. These masks were an integral part of the interior in the homes of Roman aristocrats and were necessarily present at the triumphal and religious processions that were so frequent in the life of the Romans.

Ceremonial processions also included a lot of advertising factors that integrated and interacted with each other: the recitation of verses of praise, the display of trophies won in battles, the cries of heralds calling for a spectacle.

Ancient Greece borrowed the alphabet from the Phoenicians. Along with the latter, the experience of monumental inscriptions was also borrowed.

Herodotus reports that during the era of the Greco-Persian wars, Darius, starting his campaign against Greece, erected “two pillars of white stone, of which on one in Assyrian and on the other in Hellenic letters were carved the names of all the peoples whom he led with him, and he led everyone over whom he ruled.” Here we again encounter a variant of political advertising - the glorification of the power of Darius in a way that appeals to both contemporaries and descendants. The emotional impact of monumental inscriptions was greatly enhanced by illustrations.

The experience of such a combination of text and drawing has been used in advertising activities up to the present day.

Inscriptions scratched or painted on walls are called graffiti (from the Latin graftio - scratch).

The ancient city of Pompeii, preserved by the lava that flooded it, brought to us more than one and a half thousand such inscriptions. Among them are many different advertising texts with a completely modern structure. Modern advertising theorists, not familiar with ancient culture, are inclined to argue that developed advertising activity began only with the birth of printing, i.e. no earlier than the middle of the 15th century. We cannot agree with this. Evidence of this is the abundance and functional diversity of advertising items, the wealth of techniques and means characteristic of ancient advertising. Advertising items in it cover all spheres of life.

Thermae (ancient baths), a favorite place of relaxation for Roman citizens, were also advertised: “Faustina’s bathhouse uses its income to wash according to city custom and offer all services.” Another graffiti offers to rent a villa “The villa is good and well built. The employer must contact...” What follows is a drawing of the advertised housing.

The intensity of advertising and other mass information processes in the ancient city required specially designated places in the most visited quarters. In many ways, this served as a protective measure against the power of advertising, which was sometimes placed in the most inappropriate places. The city authorities warned: “It is forbidden to write here, woe to the one whose name is mentioned here. May he have no luck."

So, advertising texts are not an invention of the New Age. Their origins go back to primitive antiquity. And in antiquity, already developed advertising activity began. Its main genre is oral announcements, which are a concentrated cluster of operational, generally useful information. The initial form is “overgrown” with a rich set of verbal, sound, visual techniques that create advertising images (images) and specifically advertising texts, whose goal is to actively delve into the psyche of a potential consumer, attract his attention, awaken desires and expressions of will, push him to actions that are beneficial for advertising-moderators.

The origins of such phenomena as posters, posters, trademarks, and advertising campaigns also go back to antiquity. They take on more distinct outlines in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.

Advertising in the ancient world is a turning point in culture, directly affecting not only advertisers, but also journalists and any figures in mass communications. Because the emergence of advertising itself as an economic factor in the development of society is associated with the emergence of civilization, within the boundaries of which there was a differentiated system of knowledge, a single religion and a single law, extending to many peoples and ethnic groups with different languages that required their translation and which is associated with the active formation of an urban culture.

The emergence at the stage of urbanism of a certain new information mechanism - the message of something to everyone living in a given urban-type settlement, without a specific address, is associated with quantitative parameters. The urban population (for example, in Rome or Babylon) could reach up to a million inhabitants, while archaic settlements and rural communities numbered a maximum of three thousand people.

Life in the city was organized around three information centers: the center of power, where the administrative leadership was located (In this case, the administrative apparatus can meet in different buildings of different configurations. Its essence is in managerial leadership in a given urban community, which in antiquity - Greek and Roman - was called the word “polis”), a spiritual center - a temple (unlike pre-urban forms, it is created in the very “heart” of an urban settlement) and an economic center retail space, market.

No matter how diverse the concepts of temple and market look, it is nevertheless interesting to discover that these seemingly diametrical formations - the purely earthly and the sublime - coexist. They follow each other very closely throughout all centuries until modern times. Therefore, no matter how lofty the aspirations of those who visit the temple, what they need for survival is sold nearby. The market is a commercial and domestic concentration of interests of city residents.

In antiquity, town criers became professional carriers of the advertising word. It was in the course of their activities that stable samples of advertising texts were developed and their typological structure was formed. The position of heralds is recorded by archaeological sources already during the period of the Cretan-Mycenaean culture around the 14th century BC.

In ancient Greek city policies, the position of herald had several branches:

1) The most important ones - carried out diplomatic assignments and were obligatory participants in various embassies. Fulfilling this mission was very honorable and extremely responsible. Among the Lacedaemonians, for example, according to Herodotus, this position was inherited from father to son and was traced back to the legendary messenger of King Agamemnon - Talthybius.

2) City - in Greek city heralds were elected by the people's assembly by voting or by lot. In addition to ambassadorial functions, a less aristocratic layer of heralds was at the disposal of the city administration and communicated to the city population the most important operational information, both business, commercial, and political.

3) Market - the least prestigious layer of heralds served market sales, served with artistic troupes, and were clients of private individuals.

The herald's rank was demonstrated by his attire and attributes. The most privileged owned a staff - the caduceus, belonging to the messenger of the gods Mercury. But it was more convenient for ordinary town criers to have some kind of sound instrument - a horn or a bell, whose call signs attracted the people.

The heralds were engaged in informing a large number of people, shouting announcements, decrees, and advertising messages. For example, residents of an ancient city were asked to come at a certain time to a certain place where a meeting, mass trade, or a performance of the city theater could take place. Heralds often informed people of new government orders. The purpose of the announcements was not always simple information; sometimes the heralds made political appeals and explained the beliefs of the politicians of the time. This is no longer even advertising, but rather PR. But most often, the heralds brought generally valid information to the population: about embassies arriving in the city, about the next distribution of food or planned theatrical production. The heralds were also instructed to promptly notify the population about citizens being summoned to court, about sentences passed and upcoming executions.

In addition to heralds, bazaar traders who needed to sell goods were engaged in oral advertising. They realized that if they started loudly inviting customers, talking about the benefits of their products, they could quickly increase revenue.

Oral cries from traders gradually emerged as a separate form of advertising. This area included:

Loud cries of traders in the markets;

Calls for distributors and intermediaries in the provision of various services and itinerant artisans.

Also, the active role of heralds in ancient society was recorded in a wide range of artistic and literary works. For example, in the comedies of Aristophanes, rarely of them does without a character called the “herald”. Famous historians constantly mention this position: Herodotus, Polybius, Tacitus, Plutarch, Suetonius.

If the features of oral advertising in antiquity can be judged by indirect data, then its visual types have partially reached us directly. These are some examples of artistic signs and emblems of artisans, imprinted on many objects of pottery production. Signs have come down to us in two versions: marble reliefs have been found that have a signboard character, and their picturesque analogues were discovered during excavations of the city of Pompeii, which perished under the lava of Vesuvius in 79 AD. e. The nature of the eruption was such that many objects of the ancient city were preserved rather than destroyed.

Painted signs were discovered in Pompeii. The most common types of services in this city were taverns, guest courtyards, and taverns. Sources report that there were 20 taverns on the central street of the city, which archaeologists called the Stabieva Road and occupies 770 meters. In total, there were about 140 establishments of this kind in Pompeii. It is clear that they competed, and the owners tried to decorate them in every possible way in order to charm and attract passers-by.

In addition to such picturesque signs, object-based and object-symbolic options were widely used in antiquity. In the first case, the “signboard” was the product itself, put on public display: sets of clay vessels near a potter’s shop or a bottle of incense on the perfumer’s window. Nowadays, this method of displaying goods is hidden behind display windows and displayed in all its glory on in-store shelves.

Cultural scientists associate the second information revolution with the formation of written communication. Researchers differ in the chronological interpretation of the period of the formation of writing. This is approximately the 6th millennium BC. e. The most ancient written materials have reached us so far from the 4th millennium BC. e. But since developed writing belongs to these dates, we can assume that some time was spent on the development of writing. The oldest written texts were found during excavations in the city of Sumer (Babylonia). They date back to approximately 3700 BC. e. This gives the right to some advertising historians to talk about six thousand years of its existence. In particular, this is the opinion of the German researcher Hans Buchli, the creator of a four-volume book dedicated to advertising and propaganda, which was published in Berlin in the 60s of the 20th century. The author calls his multi-volume work “Six thousand years of advertising,” meaning the current two thousand years of modern times and those same four thousand years BC. e., which can be pointed to as the period of the presence of written texts.

The main documentary evidence of the presence of graffiti is the inscriptions taken by archaeologists from the walls of Pompeii. Graffiti is city residents scratching their opinions, appeals, or simply making statements about themselves on walls that do not carry meaningful information. We can say that graffiti is a form of personal self-promotion.

An album has an even higher degree of professionalism in written advertising. The word "album" comes from the concept of "white". In the Roman era, the phenomenon of album - represented areas on city walls, on spacious parts of houses, which were whitewashed with white paint or lime so that current notices could be written on them. Near the several writing areas separated by columns that made up the album, there was a vessel with black paint and a writing implement. The album was served by the “bleachers” assigned for this purpose. As soon as the white areas were completely covered with advertisements, the minions took up their duties, and the completely whitewashed wall again played the role of an advertising medium.

Another form of distribution of written announcements was papyrus and wax tablets. But they were a very expensive pleasure, therefore they were a privilege of the upper classes.

1) “Acta senatus” - “senate affairs”. The latest orders of the Senate were written on a specially whitewashed wall. It was founded by Julius Caesar in 59 AD.

2) “Acta diurni populi romani” - “everyday affairs of the Roman people.” It reported daily events, government orders, and some announcements, such as deaths or divorces of famous residents. However, due to limited means of circulation, only the privileged elite could order copies of this newspaper prototype. It was necessary not only to resort to the services of copyists, but also to find expensive parchment or papyrus to reproduce the text.

You should pay attention to the poster. Poster is an advertising genre that originated in antiquity. This is a detailed account of an event taking place in a city, such as a gladiatorial fight. It contained information about the organizers of the games, the time of the competition, the names of those fighting in pairs, as well as information about the opponents. The texts were supported by images of fighting gladiators. There were also theater posters with the names of the actors written in large print, and often with drawings of individual scenes from the performances. This is evidenced by fragments of the walls of Pompeii destroyed by the earthquake. Typically, the production of posters resembled albums. These are inscriptions that were painted beautifully in red paint in places where a lot of people gathered: in the courtyards near the baths, on the walls of the theater, at the city gates, etc. However, there are also known versions of posters made on papyrus, which were sold by hand.

We can also talk about tattoos as proto-advertising - that is, visual information, addressed to any participant in the communication. Because they were designed to reflect the totality of personality traits: tribal affiliation, social rank, and individual traits.

Proto-advertising also includes “rods of chiefs” - prototypes of sceptres, symbolizing the power of their owners, as well as signs of ownership: a mark that was used to mark various objects and livestock, and subsequently slaves and criminals. Even in tribal totems there was something reminiscent of advertising: animals were usually chosen as the patron of the tribe, which for the ancients were the personification of power, courage, intelligence and cunning. With some changes, these phenomena pass through the entire history of culture, and the best proof of this is modern trademarks, brands (from the English “brand” - brand).

In political advertising of antiquity, such a role was played by statues with inscriptions of praise to rulers, generals, and famous citizens. Some of these statues were reproduced in dozens of copies, in confirmation of the greatness and glory of this or that figure and to promote his views.

Also worthy of attention is the method adopted by the ancient Romans of confirming the antiquity of the family through wax masks of their ancestors. These masks were an integral part of the interior in the homes of Roman aristocrats and were always present at triumphal and religious processions. The quantity and perfection of the visual details of the mask reflected the antiquity of the family and the greatness of the triumphant deeds.

Based on the above, it should be concluded that professional advertising in the conditions of ancient cities is isolated from syncretic forms of proto-advertising. Syncreticity is a state of fusion, folding of the text, when it expresses a number of areas of activity and has a multifunctional character. Professional advertising of antiquity uses all general cultural symbolic means and their combinations. Its main genre is oral announcements, which are a bundle of operational, generally useful information. The initial form is “overgrown” with a rich set of verbal, sound, and visual techniques that create images (images) of detailed advertising texts. Their goal is to increasingly influence the psyche of the potential consumer, the recipient, to attract his attention, awaken desires and expressions of will, and push him to actions that are valuable to advertisers. The origins of such genres as posters, posters, trademarks, and advertising campaigns go back to antiquity.

It should be noted that experts on the Middle Ages divide it into three periods of different duration. These are the early Middle Ages - from the 5th to the 10th centuries, the developed Middle Ages - from the 11th to the 14th centuries. and late Middle Ages (“Renaissance”) XV-XVI centuries. The period of the early Middle Ages is characterized by the almost complete attenuation of advertising means and individual functions that emerged in antiquity. This is explained by the collapse of the economy at that time and even by such a process as deurbanization, that is, the decline of previously existing cities to a lower level. As a result, advertising texts that began to take shape in antiquity do not find further development at this time. The diversity of communication flows is fading in its own way due to the crisis experienced by most regions Western Europe. This time is characterized by the collapse of previously vibrant trade relations and the decline of urban life. Thus, the process of deurbanization leads to a decrease in the need for mass communication and advertising as a way of expressing it.

In the first period, practically there was mainly confessional advertising, that is, religious events (mainly in the form of church holidays). Christian worship is gradually increasing its demonstrative elements. Thus, a luxurious frame is created for the relics, the relics are placed in reliquaries or reliquaries, churches, liturgical vestments, and church utensils become more and more magnificent. Religious processions seem to advertise Christian saints, especially the most revered ones. These components, glorifying or even imposing a set of religious ideas at the next stage - the stage of the developed Middle Ages - form the mainstream of real confessional advertising.

Later - in the developed Middle Ages, at the beginning of the developed Middle Ages, feudal relations became more and more strengthened, just as previously lost trade relations, and the administrative and cultural functions of cities became more and more vibrant. First of all, this has to do with oral advertising, which was prevalent in the Middle Ages in conditions of low literacy. Looking back to antiquity, the functions of heralds began to be revived, and already in the 12th century. The functions of heralds were strictly outlined by legislative rules and regulated. Somewhat later - in the 13th century. - professional associations of heralds already existed. In 1258, King Philip Augustus of France issued an order requiring heralds to join the corporation. Thus, the heralds not only enjoyed the attention of the first persons of the kingdom, but also their activities were sufficiently regulated. In addition, merchants and artisans were often prohibited from performing the functions of barkers themselves. The English statute of that time stated: “If anyone needs to sell anything, he must notify about it through a herald who is approved by the county governor... no one has the right to advertise anything by shouting. If anyone does this, the governor has the right to bring him to trial and a fine. The second time, all his property may be taken away from him.”

Oral advertising in the Middle Ages also included not only announcements made through heralds, but also through heralds. Heralds often performed almost the same role, but not in cities, but in feudal estates. The only difference: heralds were intended mainly for announcements of entertainment events or administrative events. Heralds announced tournaments, and their activity was semi-nomadic, because they had to deliver messages about the proposed knightly tournaments to all nearby settlements.

Then folklore types of oral advertising develop. These are the cries of the streets, that is, prompt current announcements about goods and services of wandering merchants and artisans; magicians and other circus performers. From time to time, these street cries were suppressed by the authorities of one city or another, however, they were not completely eradicated, and this is evidenced by the collections of oral advertising texts available in European countries: “Cries of Paris”, “Cries of London”, “Cries of Rome”.

Another type of folklore advertising is the “appeal” of special barkers of shops, taverns, wine and other sales. In rare cases, heralds acted as barkers, but in ordinary cases the barkers came from innkeepers, shopkeepers and their clerks. Fair folklore also has its place here, since in the 11th-12th centuries. and then there were special fairs in many cities in France, Germany, European capitals and ordinary cities.

In the developed Middle Ages, the use of guild and trade emblems became common practice; in particular, merchant guilds played the first role in the advertising process of that time. In time they were the first professional associations V medieval Europe who developed their own stamp and created distinctive signs for themselves. They first appeared in England in the 11th century. Most often, the guild of merchants adopted as its own emblem the image of the saint whom it especially revered, for example, for the Venetian merchants it was the image of Saint Mark, for shoemakers - the image of Saint Christine, for wool merchants - the image of Saint Basil. The earliest documentary record of a medieval trade mark in England dates back to 1266, at which time bakers were required by royal decree to put a mark on their products. Later, in the 14th century, bottle manufacturers were forced to stamp their products. Thus, it becomes clear that the state again acts as a regulator of the advertising process and protects the interests of ordinary citizens. Thus, according to contemporaries, it was assumed that if one of the craftsmen produces a product and marks it with his mark, and this product is popular, then if another craftsman begins to put exactly the same marks or very similar ones on his products, then the people will think about it. , that these signs indicate the first artisan, i.e., one who has secured a positive image among the population. As a result, the interests of the population will be harmed.

There were certain restrictions and traditions, including on the color used for symbolic figures. For example, in the treatise of Bartolo de Sassoferrato, attention is drawn to the hierarchy of colors, in particular, it says: “The golden color is nobler than others, and it represents the sun. There is nothing nobler than light. Scarlet color is noble; it means fire. The third color is blue; it means air. White color is nobler than black; black is the lowest color.”

In the developed Middle Ages, there was an improvement in workshop advertising, in particular, “collective” workshop actions appeared, during which the workshop demonstrated its cohesion and corporatism. Religious and guild events were combined, resulting in a citywide national holiday, in the center of which was a crowded procession with members of corporations. Members of corporations were more often with their families, dressed and decorated according to the fashion requirements of the time (there were so-called kleynods - workshop emblems embroidered on the clothes of workshop craftsmen). Representatives of the clergy also took part in the procession.

At the same time, religious advertising is intensifying. Temple buildings are increasingly decorated, as is the interior decoration. Brilliant artists of that time were invited to decorate churches; they often marked their work with signs of their authorship - signatures encrypted in monograms and signatures. At the same time, the process of demonstrativeness is complemented by the inclusion in the plots of religious paintings of images of donors, that is, those people who paid for the church order or donated the ordered painting to the temple. In addition, visual advertising manifested itself not only in confessional advertising through frescoes and other picturesque paintings, but also directly on city streets. In particular, city authorities instructed Leonardo da Vinci to depict hanged political criminals on the walls. These episodes provide a picture of the existence of the direct predecessor of the political poster genre in the life of medieval society.

Medieval engraving was of great importance for the subsequent printing of books; it is the predecessor of poster forms of advertising. The approximate chronology of the appearance of engraving technology in Western Europe is the beginning of the 13th century. Initially, the greatest popularity belonged to woodcuts: these were prints that appeared as a result of the use of engraving forms. First of all, here we're talking about about confessional advertising, in particular, after the image of the corresponding saint there was a text about the remission of sins previously committed by the pilgrim. The flourishing of engraving communication occurs in the late Middle Ages, but already from the 14th century. paper has become cheaper and allows woodblock prints to be reproduced more freely and distributed more widely. Famous artists of the time - Albrecht Durer, Lucas Cranach - were hired to make engravings for such prints.

They began to use not only wooden boards as a base, but also metal sheets for the main image. In turn, the metal base made it possible to improve the fineness of the carving, indicate light and shadow transitions, and also made it easier to supplement the drawings with verbal accompaniments. Further, the development of engraving went towards an increasing semantic load of verbal text. Thus, in woodcut prints, the word played a leading role, explaining, and the image an advertising role, which conveyed to any illiterate viewer the vital idea contained in the whole work. As a result, there was very little left before the typographic method of replication, i.e., the entire text cut out could be divided into individual characters, letters, and then combined in the desired way.

Although in the XV-XVI centuries. In Western Europe, oral forms of advertising still continue to lead, but advertising is becoming more and more visual in nature. One form of such visualization is colorful picturesque signs. Back in 1393, the English king Richard II issued a decree that obliged all merchants to display identification marks on their houses, either in the form of heraldic brackets or picturesque signs. In this regard, the demand for the skills of artists and goldsmiths is increasing. On many signs, loyal merchants placed parts of the royal coat of arms, in particular, in France it was a white heart. However, later the colorful figures of signs began to complement the letterforms, i.e. the experience of written advertising during the Middle Ages became increasingly significant. If the sign had a double-sided image, this means that it was attached to the wall using a bracket. This kind of fastening becomes typical for the narrow streets of Western European medieval cities.

At the same time, such a unique genre of written advertising as sequels was practiced. This Latin phrase means "if anyone" - this is a typical beginning of a medieval announcement. Such notes appeared with the appearance in the 14th century. relative to cheaper paper. They could be pasted on the walls of administrative buildings, near inns. In addition, some placed them on the doors of temples, which was harshly persecuted by the clergy. At the end of the Middle Ages, in addition to these sheets, posters began to be pasted - detailed verbal texts, often framed by frames, vignettes, and symbolic images. Itinerant acting groups were the first to master this form of advertising (they also announced their arrival by loud processions through the streets). The spectacular posters in which they were interested, often not entirely literate, could most often be seen at inns and post stations. Later they began to be called posters.

A handwritten catalog is becoming a unique new means of advertising. In particular, researchers discovered a handwritten catalog of commercially available manuscripts dating back to 1447. Thus, the appearance of various types of written products, including leaflets and posters, became one of the incentives for the invention of printing and the emergence of a new stage in advertising activity.

The beginning of book printing dates back to various years with slight differences in them. For example, information is given about the beginning of printing by Johannes Gutenberg in 1445, 1450 and 1452. Regardless of this, with the advent of typographic text, a new advertising medium appears. In particular, the flying leaf, which appeared in the developed Middle Ages, becomes printed. The printed flying sheet was often edged with an engraved frame. Sometimes a graphic illustration was included in the contents of the printed sheet. This is especially characteristic of polemical confessional leaflets during the period of religious reformation, when the Catholic Church in the late Middle Ages received a kind of cruel blow from new reformist movements.

Among the objects of printed advertising, the first place is occupied by typographical messages about available book novelties and sets of operational and brief news in flying sheets. Thus, such an advertising medium as a printed advertisement appears and is actively developing, which is gradually replacing the handwritten sequel. At a later time, the text of the advertisement is converted into a more detailed listing of the latest publications. At the same time, new printed advertising genres are being created - these are the catalogue, prospectus and price list (currently price list). For example, an advertisement by Peter Schaeffer, Gutenberg's successor in Mainz, which was printed in 1470, listed 21 books with annotations in the style of modern prospectuses. Around 1470, Roman publishers supplied advertisements with price and circulation information. Among Roman publishers and publishers in other cities, the catalog begins to become most widespread, since after the publication of the catalog an ordinary book becomes in demand, and its sale is no longer limited to the walls of the printing house. The printed catalog arose primarily as a means of publishing, and only then commercial advertising.

The next achievement after the appearance of printed advertisements, catalogues, prospectuses, and price lists was the appearance of printed posters and flyers. Flying leaflets and posters often differed little from each other in both format and content. They differed mainly in the location of their placement: if flyers were distributed from hand to hand, then posters were constantly pasted in certain popular places. For example, in port cities it could be the walls of port taverns, in other cities - any public or private buildings, in the appropriate place. The posters were generally tediously detailed, including both theater and circus posters. Both there and there described in detail the action that was about to take place. Typically, a poster consisted of a verbal part, executed in a typographical manner, and a woodcut image. This is typical for all typographically executed posters in Western Europe of the 16th-17th centuries.

The meticulousness of verbal information is preserved in relevant advertising until the second half of the 19th century. The next innovation of that time was typographical emblems printed on books owned by certain publishing houses. In particular, in the 15th century. The most famous emblem of the printer was the stamp of the Venetian publishing house Aldus Manutius; his books were so popular in Europe that some printing houses began to pass off their books as belonging to this publishing house. Then Aldus Manutius addressed the readers with a printed text that said: “They are currently printing, as far as I know, in Leon in fonts very similar to ours... Without the name of the printer, without indicating the time and year when they are finished. On the contrary, on our copies readers will find this: “In Venice, the house of Alda” and the year of publication. Moreover, there is no special mark on those books; on ours there is a dolphin entwined around an anchor.”

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