Museum of the History of Printing, Book Publishing and the History of MPI-MGUP opened at the Moscow State University of Printing Arts on November 1, 2000 on the initiative and under the leadership of the rector prof. A.M. Tsyganenko. The author of the exposition is the head of the museum, Assoc. S.V. Morozov.

It is located in two educational buildings. The main exposition (Mikhalkovskaya str., 7) consists of three parts: the history of writing, paper, printing and book publishing; history of MPI-MGUP; showroom. Park of printing machines since 1911 (Pryanishnikov str., 2). total area exposition about 1000 m 2 .

The museum has over 22,000 exhibits: printing machines and equipment from both domestic and foreign manufacturers, starting from the middle of the 19th century, handwritten and printed books. All stages of printed matter are presented: from editorial preparation of manuscripts to their printing.

Printing machines, machines, equipment

The prepress process is represented by a collection of stationary and portable typewriters (more than 20 units). Typing: manual - metal and wooden fonts; automatic set - linotypes; photocomposition - with horizontal and vertical cameras, equipment complexes "Kaskad" and "Kvant"; digital - computers.

The evolution of the printing process can be shown: a woodcut board of the end of the 17th century. from Tibet; printing presses of the middle of the XIX-n.XX centuries. German firms: proof printing (3), lithographic, tiscal (2), crucible; printing machines and mid-twentieth century. - crucible, flatbed printing (7), offset, rotary.

The binding and binding process is represented by paper cutting machines of the beginning of the 20th century, presses and machines for rounding the spines of book blocks, gilding presses, manual and automatic wire stitchers, sewing machines of foreign and domestic factories.

Antiquarian books, rare editions published in Russia and abroad

The exposition presents books of publishing houses of Russia and the USSR. Handwritten and early printed books, as well as those published in Russian and foreign languages in the 16th century 21st century The museum has 25 manuscript books of the 16th-19th centuries: Liturgical escort in 4 parts (beginning of the 16th-beginning of the 17th centuries); Literary collections of the late 17th - early 18th centuries. (The Journey of Tryphon the Peddler, About King Ageya, About Cyprian and Queen Ustinia, The Word about Evil Wives, The Conversation of the Three Hierarchs, etc.) and historical ser. XVIII century (Description of Kazan by M.S. Pestrikov, On the Devastation of the Holy City of Jerusalem, The Legend of the Conception and Birth of Peter the Great by P.N. Krekshin, A.A. Matveev’s Notes on Streltsy Riots).

Early printed books of the Moscow Printing Yard and the Synodal Printing House: “Color Triod” (1591) Andronikos Nevezhy, “Apostle”, 2nd floor. XVII century, "Grammar" Melenty Smotrytsky (1648). 20 editions of the 18th century: “Military Regulations” (St. Petersburg, 1719), “Polydor Virginius of Urbinsky” (1720); publications of the Academy of Sciences, N.N. Novikova, I.G. Rachmaninov, Free Printing House I.V. Lopukhin, Free Russian Printing House A.I. Herzen in London (an essay for children "The Adventures of Gribul" by J. Sand in Russian), university publishing houses (Moscow, Kazan, Tomsk), etc.

There are lifetime editions of poets of the Silver Age: the first magazine of Russian futurists "Dead Moon" (1914), LEF (magazine of the Left Front, edited by V. Mayakovsky, 1923). Of the 30 domestic journals of the XIX century. most of them are on display.

Books published in Germany, France, Italy, incl. the works of Rabani (1532), elzivir of the 17th century.

Books about the museum's collections

The collection of the museum has become the object of research by scientists.

The following books have been published about the museum: "N.N. Vysheslavtsev" - a monographic album about the artist of the "Silver Age", "Handwritten books of the 16th-19th centuries. in the museum collection”, “Books in the museum collection of the 18th century”, catalog “Printing equipment in the museum collection”.

Museum's own editions

A big event was the publication of a two-volume edition of memoirs of graduates "We are from MPI", a biobibliographic dictionary "We are from MPI-MGAP-MGUP" about university teachers for 80 years.

Work on the book "Let's not forget those who brought the Victory" made it possible to identify the names of 400 defenders of the Motherland - graduates, teachers, employees of Moscow State Unitary Enterprise and open a memorial.

On the occasion of the 70th anniversary of the Victory, the memoirs of the children of the war "1941. Childhood is canceled" were collected and published.

Exhibitions in the museum

An important part of the museum's work is the organization of art exhibitions. These are graduation and term papers students, teachers, prominent artists working on book design, etc. In total, over 200 exhibitions have been held in 16 years.

The museum hosted the first foreign exhibitions - from Iran and Bratislava, Germany; there was an exhibition of Arabic writing from the National Museum of the Republic of Tatarstan.

The museum displays its collections at exhibitions and other museums

The exhibition activities of the museum are not limited to the walls of the museum: the museum exhibits its materials at the International Exhibitions Polygraphinter, at the Polytechnic and Biological Museum. Timiryazev, in the Presidential Library of the Kremlin, in the Crocus Expo.

The museum hosts meetings of MPI-MGUP graduates, with employees of publishing houses and printing companies, with veterans. Literary and musical evenings are organized.

Filming and TV shows are filmed in the museum

Film directors and videographers turn to us for advice. We participated in more than 20 programs on all channels of central TV, cable and NAO - "Trust", "Native Corner" and in news programs on the radio. With the channel "Culture" films " Printing machines» under the rubric «Time machines», «History of paper», etc.

More than 3,000 thousand people visit the museum every year

Students and teachers, university staff, schoolchildren from Moscow and other cities, various delegations, including foreign ones, inspect the exposition, organize events, attend master classes.

We invite you to our museum!

Johannes Gutenberg and the first printing press

For centuries, the knowledge contained in books was the property of a few, mainly monks and priests. Each book was unique, but for most people in the Middle Ages, this was not a problem - they were illiterate. In the Middle Ages, books were copied by hand, usually in monasteries. Often the monks spent years on one book. In 1450, one invention changed the world.

In the German city of Mainz, Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing technique using movable letters. It was now possible to print books in large quantities and relatively cheaply. The technical foundation was laid for future changes in science, politics and religion.

Johann Gensfleisch, who later changed his surname to Gutenberg, was born in Mainz around 1400. His father was a wealthy merchant. Young Johann went to a monastery school. This is what we know, but then his trace is lost for a long time.
He reappeared only in 1434 in Strastbourg. Here he founded a factory for the production of mirrors for pilgrims. They were very popular with believers who hoped to catch in the mirror a piece of God's spirit from each temple and the relics stored in it. The Gutenberg cause flourished.

At that time, the trade in religious objects brought big income. Especially popular were engravings depicting saints. Woodcut printing is one of the first printing techniques, but it only came to Europe in the Middle Ages. It was used mainly for replicating paintings and texts. But cutting out page-sized blocks took a lot of time. First, it was necessary to draw a mirror image of the page on the block, then individual letters were cut out. Finally, the block was smeared with ink, paper was placed on it and rubbed with a bone tool so that the ink was absorbed.

In 1448 Gutenberg returned to Mainz. Here he found financial support and was able to start his own enterprise. A brilliant idea came to him. He divided the text into components: letters, punctuation marks and their frequent combinations - ligatures. They were combined into blocks, typing words, lines and pages. Cast letters could be reused in different combinations.

This is how a letter is made. An inverted letter is engraved on the end of a metal rod. It is dipped in softened copper, leaving an imprint in it. This matrix acts as a form for a real type, which is cast from lead.
In order to be able to produce letters quickly and in sufficient quantities, Gutenberg made another important step- Invented hand casting tools. It consists of a rectangular trough. A matrix is ​​inserted into one end, and molten lead is poured from the other. When the mold is opened, there is a finished lead letter inside. The matrix can be used to produce an unlimited number of characters.

Finally, the compositor begins to compose a layout from letters. Lines are inserted into the form so that they form the desired sequence. The result is a mirror image of the page. The form is smeared with printing ink. Gutenberg used a mixture of soot, varnish and egg white. Now you can start printing. Gutenberg had a special machine, but he borrowed the principle from the wine press.

Bible Gutenberg
One of Gutenberg's greatest admirers was Martin Luther. The art of printing led him to the bold idea that the layman need not wait for the priest to tell him what the Bible says. He can read it himself and choose between the true text and the false interpretations of the church. Luther printed half a million copies of his German translation of the Bible, a huge circulation for those days. To convey his ideas to the people, he distributed hundreds of thousands of pamphlets.

Gutenberg himself did not get rich from his invention. He did not even have time to finish printing the Bible when his creditor demanded to return the debt. In the ensuing legal war, Gutenberg lost both the press and all of the printed Bibles.

Shortly thereafter, Mainz was captured by enemy troops. Gutenberg has been expelled. Three years later, he was allowed to return and work for the new archbishop. On February 3, 1468, Johannes Gutenberg died.
He was buried in the Franciscan church in Mainz. But his invention, movable type printing, changed the world forever.

Publications in the Literature section

"Apostle" - the first dated printed book in Russia

In March 1564, the first printed dated book, The Apostle, was published. The history of book printing in Russia began with it. We recall interesting facts about the "Apostle" and its publishers.

Books "By hand"

Ivan III Vasilievich. Portrait from the "Royal titular". XVII century.

The title page of the manuscript "Stoglav" from the Main Collection of the Library of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra.

Pioneer Ivan Fedorov. Ivan Tomashevich. 1904

Printing in Russia was preceded by the era of handwritten books. They copied them in monasteries, and at the same time they could not do without “ human factor". To prevent errors and deviations from church norms from appearing in books, the rules for the work of "writers" of sacred texts were published in Stoglav in 1551. The collection also contained church rules and instructions, ancient Russian norms of law and morality.

“The Blessed Tsar and Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich of All Russia ordered to buy holy books at auction and invest in holy churches. But among them there were few suitable ones - all turned out to be corrupted by scribes, ignorant and ignorant in the sciences. Then he began to think about how to organize the printing of books, so that henceforth the holy books would be published in a corrected form.

Ivan Fedorov, afterword to the "Apostle"

The first printing house in Russia

Progress helped to start solving the problem on a national scale. A century earlier, the printing press was invented, and later it appeared in Russia. In the middle of the 16th century, several "anonymous" - without specifying the publisher - books of religious content were published in Russia. These were three Gospels, two Psalms and a Triodion. In 1553, Tsar Ivan the Terrible ordered the construction of the Printing Yard at the expense of the tsar's treasury - not far from the Kremlin, on Nikolskaya Street. Of the buildings of the first printing house, the oldest one has been preserved - the “correct” or proofreader.

By order of the sovereign "to find the skill of printed books," the deacon of the Kremlin church of St. Nicholas Gostunsky Ivan Fedorov took up the matter. Fedorov was widely educated: he knew Greek and Latin, knew how to bind books and was engaged in foundry business.

Why "Apostle"

Monument to Ivan Fedorov, Moscow. Photo: artpoisk.info

"Apostle", 1564 Book cover. Photo: mefodiya.ru

Place of the former printing house, Moscow. Photo: mefodiya.ru

For printing the first edition, they took the "Acts and Epistles of the Apostles", written by the Evangelist Luke, - part of the New Testament. The book was used in divine services, in the preparation of priests and for teaching reading and writing in parochial schools.

Printing such a serious book required careful preparation. For a new undertaking, Ivan Fedorov needed helpers - among them was Pyotr Mstislavets, who is also considered one of the first book printers in Russia. At first, everyone learned to type text and print it. Fedorov and his assistants made molds for each letter, cast more and more lead letters of different fonts and carved wooden ornaments to decorate the chapters. The sovereign personally supervised the preparation process.

Ivan Fedorov and Metropolitan Macarius were especially diligent in selecting the original source - versions of the handwritten "Apostles" were sent from the monasteries. At the Printing Yard, a “reference chamber” was opened, where a sample was prepared for printing. The text of the book itself also required elaboration.

“It must be said that Ivan Fedorov “lightened” the book by eliminating from it many official materials that were not included in canonical text, but by tradition placed in the handwritten Apostles. These are all kinds of prefaces, interpretations, etc.”

Evgeny Nemirovsky, bibliologist, doctor of historical sciences

Almost ten years passed from the royal command to start the printing press to the printing itself. Only in April 1563 did the masters begin to make the book itself.

Book work

Fragment of the book "Apostle". 1564

Fragment of the book "Apostle". 1564

Printed the first book for almost a year. As a result, a "handwritten semi-ustav" of the 16th century was taken as a font sample - medium-sized rounded letters with a slight slope to the right. Church books were usually copied in this style. To make the printed book easier to read, the craftsmen painstakingly aligned the lines and spaces between words. For printing, glued French paper was used - thin and durable. Ivan Fedorov himself engraved and typed the text himself.

In 1564 the first Russian printed dated book was published. It had 534 pages, each with 25 lines. The circulation at that time was impressive - about two thousand copies. To this day, about 60 books have been preserved in museums and libraries.

A work of printing art of the 16th century

Frontispiece and title page of the Apostle. 1564. A copy from the State Public Scientific and Technical Library of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

Fragment of the book "Apostle". 1564. A copy from the State Public Scientific and Technical Library of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

The Apostle was decorated in the style of ancient Russian handwritten books. The wooden binding was covered with morocco with gold embossing and brass clasps. Inside, the "Apostle" was "with pictures": the book was decorated with 48 drawings of intricately intertwined herbs with fruits and cones. The printer marked the beginning of the chapter with an ornament, and the letters and inserts were also marked with red vermilion. The colors were so High Quality that have not faded even after centuries.

With such a traditional design, a new element of decor appeared in the Apostle: an engraved frontispiece - a drawing placed on the same spread as the title page. It depicts the figure of the Evangelist Luke in an arch on two columns.

“Last year they introduced printing ... and I myself saw with what dexterity books were already printed in Moscow”, - noted the work of Moscow printers in 1564 by the Italian aristocrat Rafael Barberini, who visited Russia in those years.

Years of preparation and scrupulous work on the book paid off: the researchers did not find a single mistake or misprint in the book.

The author of the epilogue spoke about the great church building "throughout the city" of Muscovite Russia, especially "in the newly enlightened place in the city of Kazan and within it", and the need for printed church books that were not distorted by scribes: mind."

Other books by Ivan Fedorov

A year after the release of The Apostle, Ivan Fedorov published a collection of prayers called The Clockworker. The book came out in two "factories", that is, editions. The first printer spent about three months at work, after which he left Moscow for Lvov.

“... It is not fitting for me to shorten the time of my life either by plowing or sowing seeds, because instead of a plow I master the art of handicraft tools, and instead of bread I have to sow spiritual seeds in the Universe and distribute this spiritual food to everyone according to order ... "

Ivan Fedorov

Later he published another version of the "Apostle" and the first Russian textbook - "Azbuka", following his life principle - "scatter spiritual seeds." Ivan Fedorov published another book in the printing house of the city of Ostrog in 1581 - the Ostroh Bible.

It is impossible to imagine modern life without the invention that a simple German artisan gave the world. Typography, the founder of which he became, changed the course of world history to such an extent that it is rightfully attributed to the greatest achievements of civilization. His merit is so great that those who, many centuries before, created the basis for a future discovery are undeservedly forgotten.

Wood board print

The history of book printing originates in China, where, as early as the 3rd century, the technique of the so-called piece printing came into use - an imprint on textiles, and later on paper, of various drawings and short texts carved on a wooden board. This method was called xylography and quickly spread from China throughout East Asia.

It should be noted that printed engravings appeared much earlier than books. Separate samples have survived to this day, made already in the first half of the 3rd century, when representatives ruled in China. In the same period, the technique of three-color printing on silk and paper appeared.

First woodcut book

Researchers attribute the creation of the first printed book to the year 868 - it is this date that is on the earliest edition, made using the xylography technique. It appeared in China and was a collection of religious and philosophical texts, entitled "Diamond Sutra". During the excavations of the Gyeongji temple in Korea, a sample of a printed product was found, made almost a century earlier, but due to some features, it belongs more to the category of amulets than books.

In the Middle East, piece printing, that is, as mentioned above, made from a board on which text or a drawing was cut, came into use in the middle of the 4th century. Woodcut, called in Arabic "tarsh", became widespread in Egypt and reached its peak by the beginning of the 10th century.

This method was used mainly for printing texts of prayers and making written amulets. A characteristic feature of Egyptian woodcuts is the use for impressions not only of wooden boards, but also made of tin, lead and baked clay.

The advent of movable type

However, no matter how the box printing technology improved, its main drawback was the need to cut out the entire text again for each next page. A breakthrough in this direction, thanks to which the history of printing received a significant impetus, also occurred in China.

According to Shen Ko, an outstanding scientist and historian of the past centuries, the Chinese master Bi Shen, who lived from 990 to 1051, came up with the idea to make movable characters from fired clay and place them in special frames. This made it possible to type a certain text from them, and after printing the required number of copies, scatter and reuse in other combinations. This is how movable type was invented, which is still used today.

However, this brilliant idea, which became the basis of all future book printing, did not receive proper development at that time. This is explained by the fact that there are several thousand characters in the Chinese language, and the production of such a font seemed too difficult.

Meanwhile, considering all the stages of printing, it should be recognized that non-Europeans were the first to use typesetting letters. Known to have survived to this day is the only book of religious texts, made in 1377 in Korea. As the researchers found, it was printed using movable type technology.

European inventor of the first printing press

In Christian Europe, the technique of box printing appeared around 1300. On its basis, all kinds of religious images made on fabric were produced. They were sometimes quite complex and multicolored. About a century later, when paper became relatively affordable, Christian engravings began to be printed on it, and in parallel with this, playing cards. Paradoxical as it may seem, the progress of printing has served both holiness and vice at the same time.

However, the full history of printing begins with the invention of the printing press. This honor belongs to the German artisan from the city of Mainz, Johannes Gutenberg, who developed in 1440 a method for repeatedly applying prints to sheets of paper using movable type. Despite the fact that in subsequent centuries other inventors were credited with primacy in this field, serious researchers have no reason to doubt that the appearance of printing is connected precisely with his name.

Inventor and his investor

Gutenberg's invention consisted in the fact that he made letters from metal in their inverted (mirror) form, and then, having typed lines from them, made an impression on paper using a special press. Like most geniuses, Gutenberg had brilliant ideas but lacked the funds to implement them.

To give life to his invention, the brilliant artisan was forced to seek help from a Mainz businessman named Johann Fust and conclude an agreement with him, by virtue of which he was obliged to finance future production, and for this he had the right to receive a certain percentage of the profits.

Companion who turned out to be a smart businessman

Despite the outward primitiveness of the technical means and the lack of qualified assistants, the inventor of the first printing press managed to produce a number of books in a short time, the most famous of which is the famous “Gutenberg Bible”, stored in the Mainz Museum.

But the world is so arranged that in one person the gift of an inventor rarely coexists with the skills of a cold-blooded businessman. Very soon, Fust took advantage of the part of the profit that was not paid to him on time and, through the court, took over the whole business. He became the sole owner of the printing house, and this explains the fact that for a long time it was with his name that the creation of the first printed book was mistakenly associated.

Other contenders for the role of pioneer printers

As mentioned above, very many peoples of Western Europe disputed with Germany the honor of being considered the founders of printing. In this regard, several names are mentioned, among which the most famous are Johann Mentelin from Strasbourg, who managed to create a printing house similar to the one that Gutenberg had in 1458, as well as Pfister from Bamberg and the Dutchman Lawrence Coster.

The Italians did not stand aside either, claiming that their compatriot Pamfilio Castaldi was the inventor of movable type, and that it was he who transferred his printing house to the German merchant Johann Fust. However, no hard evidence for such a claim has been presented.

Beginning of book printing in Russia

And, finally, let us dwell in more detail on how the history of printing in Russia developed. It is well known that the first printed book of the Muscovite state is the "Apostle", made in 1564 in the printing house of Ivan Fedorov and Both of them were students of the Danish master Hans Missenheim, sent by the king at the request of Tsar Ivan the Terrible. The afterword of the book states that their printing press was founded in 1553.

According to the researchers, the history of printing in the Muscovite state developed as a result of the urgent need to correct numerous errors that had crept into the texts of religious books that had been copied by hand for many years. Through inattention, and sometimes deliberately, scribes introduced distortions, which became more and more every year.

The church council, held in 1551 in Moscow, which received the name "Stoglavy" (by the number of chapters in its final decision), issued a decree on the basis of which all handwritten books in which errors were noticed were withdrawn from use and subject to correction. Often, however, this practice only led to new distortions. It is quite clear that the solution to the problem could only be the widespread introduction of printed publications that repeatedly replicate the original text.

This problem was well known abroad, and therefore, in pursuit of commercial interests, in many European countries ah, in particular, in Holland and Germany, they arranged the printing of books based on their sale among the Slavic peoples. This created fertile ground for the subsequent creation of a number of domestic printing houses.

Russian book printing under Patriarch Job

A tangible impetus for the development of printing in Russia was the establishment of a patriarchate in it. The first primate of the Russian Orthodox Church, Patriarch Job, who took the throne in 1589, from the first days began to make efforts to provide the state with an appropriate amount of spiritual literature. During his reign, a master by the name of Nevezha was in charge of printing, who published fourteen different editions, in their characteristic features very close to the Apostle, which was printed by Ivan Fedorov.

The history of book printing of a later period is associated with the names of such masters as O. I. Radishchevsky-Volintsev and A. F. Pskovitin. From their printing house came out a lot of not only spiritual literature, but also educational books, in particular, manuals for studying grammar and mastering reading skills.

The subsequent development of printing in Russia

A sharp decline in the development of typography occurred at the beginning of the 17th century and was due to the events associated with the Polish-Lithuanian intervention and called the Time of Troubles. Some of the masters were forced to interrupt their occupation, while the rest died or left Russia. Mass printing resumed only after the accession to the throne of the first sovereign from the House of Romanov - Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich.

Peter I did not remain indifferent to printing production either. Having visited Amsterdam during his European voyage, he concluded an agreement with the Dutch merchant Jan Tessing, according to which he had the right to produce printed materials in Russian and bring them to Arkhangelsk for sale.

In addition, the sovereign gave an order for the production of a new civil type, which came into widespread use in 1708. Three years later, in St. Petersburg, which was preparing to become the capital of Russia, the largest printing house in the country was established, which later became synodal. From here, from the banks of the Neva, book printing spread throughout the country.

Ministry of Education and Science Russian Federation

Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution

higher vocational education

"Magnitogorsk State Technical University named after G.I. Nosov"

Department of Chemistry, Packaging Technology

ESSAY

by discipline: History of the development of printing production

on the topic: History of typography and printing business

Artist: Shchepetneva V.M. 1st year student, group SHTPb-13

Supervisor:

Bodyan L. A.

Magnitogorsk - 2013

Assignment for an abstract

Shchepetneva V. M.

Faculty of Standardization, Chemistry and Biotechnology

Specialty "Technology and design of packaging production"

Course 1 group SHTPb-13

Abstract deadline

From "____" 2013 by "______" 2013

Theme of the assignment: History of typography and printing business

Main tasks: Writing and writing in antiquity, Book and printing in the Middle Ages, Beginning of typography and printing in Europe, Typography and printing in North America, Typography and printing in the 17th century, Typography and printing in the 19th century, Typography and printing in the 20th century, Ancient Russian written culture, The first handwritten books in Ancient Russia, The beginning of Slavic typography and printing in the Russian state, Typography and printing in Russia in the 17th century, Typography and printing in Russia in the 18th - XIX centuries, Typography and printing in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, Typography and printing in Russia in 1917-1921, Typography and printing in Russia in 1920, Typography and printing in Russia in 1930, during the Second World War ; Typography and printing business in Russia in the post-war period, Modern printing production in Russia.

Head: Bodyan L. A

Introduction

2. Book and printing business in the Middle Ages

3. The beginning of printing and printing business in Europe (XV-XVI centuries)

5. Typography and printing business in the 17th century

10. The beginning of Slavic printing and printing in the Russian state

12. Typography and printing business in Russia in the 18th - 19th centuries

15. Typography and printing in Russia in the 1920s.

Conclusion

Introduction

Scientists of different eras betrayed great importance to the invention of printing. Friedrich Engels, along with the main production factors, such as the development of industry, the strengthening of ties between the peoples of Western and Central Europe and the great geographical discoveries, also calls the "printing press" a brilliant invention.

However, in wide circles of educated people, acquaintance with the facts of the history and technology of the book is rarely found, although it would seem that this subject should interest every reader, regardless of specialty. On the contrary, various prejudices are widespread. One of them is that the typographic process was invented on the basis of woodcuts, i.e. wood engraved books. Another is the opinion that in the first works of printing, the letters were carved from wood. In fact, even a superficial study of the type in the most ancient monuments of book printing reveals that all of them were made using type cast from metal. The technique of casting letters was the originality and grandeur of the invention that gave life to the printed book.

The question of the origin of book printing, of when, where, by whom, under what circumstances it was invented, is one of the most complex and controversial historical issues.

A more or less generally accepted point of view in historical or bibliographic science recognizes Johannes Gutenberg as the inventor of printing.

The time of the invention of printing refers to the period between the exploits of the French folk heroine Jeanne d Ark (1429-1431) and the capture of Constantinople by the Turks (1453). The latter fact influenced the content of book production. In socio-economic and cultural terms, the entire 15th century is of particular interest. On the one hand, this was the era of the end of the struggle between democracy and the aristocracy in medieval cities, on the other hand, the flourishing of humanism and the beginning of an unprecedented growth in artistic creativity.

history printing typography printed

1. Writing and writing in antiquity

The most ancient material for books was probably clay and its derivatives (shards, ceramics). Even the Sumerians sculpted flat tablet bricks and wrote on them with triangular sticks, squeezing out wedge-shaped signs (Figure 1). The tablets were dried in the sun or burned in a fire. Then the finished tablets of the same content were placed in a certain order in a wooden box - a clay cuneiform book was obtained. Its advantages were cheapness, simplicity, availability. A clay label with the name of the work, the names of the author, owner, patron gods was attached to the box with the tablets - a kind of title page. In Europe (on the island of Crete and in southern Greece) and in the Middle East (in the Indus River basin), writing appeared several centuries later, and in China only in the 2nd millennium BC.

Figure 1 - Sumerian clay tablet

In ancient Egypt, papyrus reed made it possible for the greatest civilization of the ancient world to emerge and flourish. The Egyptians peeled the stems of cut reeds from the bark and cut thin ribbons from the porous core. They were laid in layers, one across the other; since the juice of papyrus had the properties of glue. Drying, he pressed the papyrus into a solid mass, elastic, fairly even and strong. Dried papyrus was polished with pumice and sea shells, tinted and whitewashed. Papyrus, however, was fragile, and it was not practical to cut sheets from it and bind them. Therefore, papyrus ribbons were glued together or sewn into scrolls, which were twisted, tied, and placed in special cases - capsules (Figure 2).

Figure 2 - Papyrus Scroll

Along with papyrus, material made from the skins of young animals - calves, goats, sheep, rabbits - also became widespread. It was named parchment, after the name of the place where this method was invented. For a long time, papyrus and parchment were used simultaneously, due to the decline in the production of papyrus in Egypt, parchment began to come to the fore.

There were quite a lot of books in Ancient Egypt, but they revolved only among the top of society: the entourage of the pharaoh, the priests, because the bulk of the people were illiterate. Books were created from sheets of ivory or from cypress boards covered with wax. They were fastened together, and the text was scratched out with a sharp stylus.

In ancient China, the manufacture bamboo books . Thinly planed bamboo sheets were fastened together with metal staples in the form of a modern sliding window shade. On such a curtain book, as well as on later invented silk, the Chinese drew their hieroglyphs with brushes, using ink for this. The Chinese originally made paper from bamboo pulp.

The most accessible material for writing was birch bark. Birch bark books were most widely used among the ancient Slavs, as well as among the peoples of North India.

So, the ancient world gave mankind writing, and with it all the wealth of spiritual culture. In the course of the development of the most ancient civilizations of Egypt, China, Greece, Rome, the most common form of the book so far, the codex, was born and developed. The book was subordinated to the purely utilitarian task of consolidating and transmitting information. As a result, the ancient man created a book that is perceived as a single holistic organism and which has served and continues to serve as a source of inspiration for more than one generation of book creators.

. Book and printing in the Middle Ages

In Europe, during the Middle Ages, many monasteries were built, in which excellent calligraphers and masters of book design worked. It was also where book cases were made. Rewriting books was considered a charitable act. The main material for writing was parchment, which was painted in purple, black and other colors, the letters were applied with silver or gold paint. Initials, headings were entered into the finished manuscript, illustrators prepared miniatures and ornaments. The luxury of bindings, precious stones, gold and silver salaries made the book a real work of art (Figure 3).

Figure 3 - Book of parchment

In the era of the early Middle Ages, the book business was almost entirely in the hands of the clergy. The church censored books and strictly controlled the content of theological treatises. By concentrating in her hands the monopoly right to rewrite books, she thereby prevented the wide dissemination of knowledge among the laity. Many "harmful" books from the point of view of the church were burned at the stake along with their authors and translators.

Since the 11th century, in connection with the growth of cities, trade relations, the development of crafts that require literate people, universities have been opened. The oldest of them, Bologna, was opened in 1119, Paris in 1120.

At the beginning of the XIII century, Cambridge and Oxford universities were opened. When they were created workshops for the correspondence of books intended mainly for education. Books created practically one-by-one were expensive. In this regard, book depositories, which were arranged at secular and church institutions, are of great importance. Libraries collected sacred writings, lives, works of patristic literature, liturgical books. University libraries were created not only to store, but also to use books. In public repositories, manuscripts were chained to the shelves, only in some cases books were allowed to be taken home.

In the VIII-XI centuries, few even literate people owned books. With the development of trade and crafts, a revival gradually begins in the cultural life of many European peoples. Along with the opening educational institutions there was a large number of literate people.

The need for knowledge in geography, jurisprudence, and the exact sciences has increased. Scientists turned to the heritage of antiquity, assimilated its achievements, prepared original works designed for university students and lecturers. To rewrite lecture notes and textbooks, calligraphers were involved, who were called hospitals.

The penetration of elements of secularism and worldly way of thinking into the consciousness of a medieval person also affected the external decoration of books. The elegant and expensive decorations characteristic of church books are gradually being replaced by simple but well-executed samples of handwritten codices, the content of which corresponded to the literary tastes of the emerging burghers and nobility. The cheapening of books, which became possible as a result of the introduction of paper into their production, as well as as a result of the development of artistic crafts, expanded the circle of consumers and contributed to the formation of public and private libraries. The libraries of Ireland, England, France and Germany were famous for their book collections. At the end of the 14th century, a general catalog of books was compiled in England, taking into account the funds of 160 monastic and church libraries.

. The beginning of book printing and printing business in Europe (XV-XVI centuries)

The main reason for the invention of printing was the ever-growing demand for books from various segments of the population. The revitalization of public life, the development of education, culture, science, technology, literature, the emergence of a large number of new educational institutions, including universities, demanded a cheap, public, quickly, simply and in large editions of a book produced. A mechanical way of making books was needed.

But the mere need for the invention of printing is not enough. Certain prerequisites were needed by the middle of the 15th century. they appeared. This is the development of various crafts and the creation of primitive technology, the appearance in Europe of paper - the cheapest and most convenient material for writing and printing. One of the important prerequisites was that primitive printing methods were already known and used - woodcuts, when text and illustrations were cut out on a board from which printing was made. Movable type for printing was known.

In 1553, Ivan the Terrible ordered the construction of a printing house (as the printing house was then called). Ivan Fedorov, the master of printing, was entrusted to lead this work. He had a lot of worries: he had to follow the construction of the printing house and train workers who, on his order, made printing presses and tools. Great help to Ivan Fedorov was provided by Pyotr Mstislavets, also a skilled craftsman.

And soon in Moscow on Nikolskaya, near Gostiny Ryads, not far from the Kremlin, new chambers appeared - the Moscow Printing Yard. A new craft appeared in Russia - typography. March 1, 1564 Ivan Fedorov and Peter Mstislavetsfinished their glorious work - the first printed book in Russia, it was called " Apostle".Several copies of this book have come down to us and are carefully kept in the department of rare books in Moscow, St. Petersburg and other repositories. The time of the publication of the "Apostle" in history is considered to be the beginning of Russian book printing.

At the same time, the first printed books of educational content appeared in Russia. In 1574, in Lvov, the Russian first printer Ivan Fedorov published an educational book called "Primer". In 1596, the "Slavic-Russian Primer" by Lavrentiy Zizaniy Tustanovsky was printed in Vilna.

in our understanding, these books were not - rather, they were grammars of the Church Slavonic language. But these books were not primers in our understanding - rather, they were grammars of the Church Slavonic language.

In 1634, the first Russian primer was published in the Moscow Printing Yard, the main printing center in Russia. It was generally one of the first printed books not of a church, but of a civil content. This primer (a manual for teaching literacy) was compiled by the patriarchal clerk Vasily Burtsov. The full title of this book was: "The primer of the Slovenian language, that is, the beginning of teaching for children." Burtsov's primer was supplied with engravings and was published in several editions in the 17th century.

Printing in Russia has become a powerful tool for the dissemination of knowledge and education. That is why the beginning of book printing is one of the largest events in the history of the culture of our country, and Ivan Fedorov is an outstanding figure in Russian culture.

4. Typography and Printing in North America

Printing in North America, which at that time was a colony of England, began in the 30s of the 17th century. The center of social and cultural life of the colonies is Boston, and it was here, in its suburb of Cambridge, that the first printing house was opened in 1639. The first American typographer was Stephen Day, who became the founder of American printing by accident. In the summer of 1683, the English preacher R. Glover was supposed to come to New England in Massachusetts and bring printing equipment with him. R. Glover died on the way; with him on the ship was the mechanic Stefan Day, who knew how to handle the printing press. He was the widow of R. Glover and entrusted the organization of the printing house. After some time, S. Day paid the Glover family the cost of printing equipment and became its owner.

In 1675, a printing house was opened directly in Boston, and for a long time it became the center of the book business. By the end of the XVII century. the printing press operated in five cities, and the total number of publications reached 900 titles. First printed editions were issued by S. Day, - "The Citizen's Oath", "The Book of Psalms" and "Almanac for 1639".

The most important American printer of this period was the famous scientist W. Franklin. His activity began with a modest position as an apprentice in the printing house of his elder brother James in Boston in 1718. In 1730.V. Franklin opens a well-equipped printing press in Philadelphia.

Theological literature prevailed, the publication of which increased by the end of the 18th century. Many publications can only formally be attributed to theological literature: the traditional form of sermons and treatises reflected the "fermentation of minds." Within the framework of theological literature, there was basically a struggle between two extremely opposite ideological trends. On the one hand, the theological book was an official publication serving the church and the state. On the other hand, the theological literature reflected the ideas of the French enlighteners, the ideas of religious tolerance, national independence, protection of human rights, propaganda of the republic, condemnation of the monarchy.

The second place in book production was occupied by legal and business literature, combined in one heading - jurisprudence. An outstanding publication in the field of legal literature was the famous "Code of Liberties" published in 1641 - the first code of laws of the colonies, which rejected "inhuman, barbaric or cruel punishments."

Fiction in terms of the number of books published, it also occupies one of the leading places in this period. The first editions were historical memoirs covering the life of the colonists and Indians: "The True Narrative of the Notable Events in Virginia" by D. Smith, "The True Narrative of the Bermuda Shipwrecks" by W. Strachey.

The development of public life, the desire to recognize itself as an independent state with its own origins and traditions, led to the emergence of publications of a historical nature. Initially, these were only descriptions of the history of the development of various individual colonies.

The first children's book written and published in America was The New England Primer (1688). It included a prayer, the ten commandments, a rhyming alphabet, and moralistic biblical stories.

At first, all printing equipment and paper were imported from England. The first paper mill (mill) was opened only in 1690, and the first type foundry - in 1772. But then the industrialization of printing in America developed at a much faster pace than in Europe, and it soon overtook and overtook the classical printing countries ( Germany, Italy, England, France) in the field of printing production and technical equipment of the publication.

Bookshops in the colonies followed the first printing houses, and originally the owner of the printing house was also the owner of the bookshop.

. Typography and Printing in the 17th Century

The 17th century is one of the most difficult periods in the development of Russia. The Polish-Swedish intervention, the change of government, the lean years of famine at the beginning of the century determined the living conditions of the people. At this time, a single all-Russian market is being formed, which contributes to the strengthening economic ties between the regions of the country and leads to the centralization of the Muscovite state. Along with the strengthening of absolutism, feudal oppression also intensifies, which causes a protest of the masses, which resulted in a peasant war led by Ivan Bolotnikov and urban uprisings in the middle of the century.

All this has a negative impact on the state of culture, education and science. The peasantry was illiterate, women were not taught to read even in the privileged strata of society, school education pursued the most elementary goals - to teach literacy and the basics of Orthodoxy.

Nevertheless, book business continued to develop in the 17th century - handwritten books were created, printed editions were issued. Careful consideration of this process allows us to speak of some editorial principles in the preparation of books.

The main difference between book printing in Russia and the publishing business of European countries, in which it was almost completely carried out by private individuals, was that Russian book printing of that time was monopoly implemented by the state and the church.

The production of books before the beginning of the peasant war and the Polish-Swedish intervention (1611-1613) was carried out by the subject index of the Moscow printing house. At the beginning of the century there were three printing mills here. The Poles ravaged and burned the printing house. One of the masters, name index Nikita Fofanov, managed to move to Nizhny Novgorod, where the Russian militia was assembled against the invaders. Here he began printing books. In 1925 in State Library named after V.I. Lenin, one of Fofanov's publications of that period was found - the so-called subject index "Nizhny Novgorod Monument", printed on December 17, 1613, in which Fofanov enthusiastically welcomed the defeat of the interventionists.

After the liberation of Moscow, by royal decree, masters of printing were assembled. The name index of Nikita Fofanov was summoned from Nizhny Novgorod and "a staff with all the gear" was transported to Moscow.

In 1615, the first book of the subject index "Psalter" was published (Figure 4). By the beginning of 1620, on Nikolskaya Street, adjacent to the Kremlin, a two-story stone building was built - the subject index of the Moscow Printing Yard. And a year later, more than 80 artisans were working here, participating in the printing of books.

Figure 4 - Book "Psalter"

Until the 1940s, only church literature was printed in Moscow; the bulk of the Moscow printing house was made up of the apostles, gospels, and psalters. The original Russian book of secular content is published mainly in handwritten form. The nature of the books published in the 17th century, their subject matter, and content show that the Church plays the main role in the publishing business of that time.

6. Typography and printing in the 19th century

Capitalist book publishing in the 19th century was a decisive step forward in comparison with the feudal-absolutist orders of the previous era. First of all, it is necessary to note the progress in the field of technical re-equipment of book printing. It's about on the introduction of mechanical motors into the basic processes of book production. From the history of technology, the names of J. Watt, J. Stephenson, J. Fulton and many others are widely known, literally ascetics of the steam engine, which radically changed the entire production environment of the 19th century, and after that the whole way of life of mankind.

In book printing, the inventors were German emigrants - the printer and bookseller Friedrich Koenig and the mathematician Andrei Bauer. In 1811, in London, they built the world's first printing press connected to a steam engine. It was first launched in 1814 for the printing of the Times newspaper. Characteristically, with some improvements, this machine works in modern printing houses.

The new machine was designed by the British A. Applegate and R. Hoe in 1846 - 1848. and is called rotational. She gave 12,000 impressions per hour. Especially for this machine, paper began to be used not in cut sheets, but in the form of a continuously wound roll. On these machines, they printed from a type-setting form, and individual letters wore out quickly, which was a significant drawback of rotary machines. In addition, they were bulky, clumsy and not very convenient to use. Sheet-rotating machines began to be built again only at the end of the 19th century and more intensively at the beginning of the 20th century, after the automation of the sheet laying was successfully completed. By this time, the appearance of sheet rotary machines for deep and offset printing.

The first lithographic rotary machine to replace low-performance flat-bed printing machines was built in France in 1868 by the Marinoni company, which, after the invention of the offset printing method and in connection with the expansion of printing work on tin, created the first litho-offset machine on its basis, which began to be produced in the USA only since 1904, the Americans W. Bullock in 1863 and H. Scott in 1869 proposed printing from stereotypes, which were first paper, and then with an extended layer durable metal, thereby increasing the circulation stability.

In the same years, technology is born flat print for the production of illustrations in the first place - lithography. In 1799 Alois Senefelder, the owner of a small music printing press in Munich, experimented and patented printing from the smooth surface of a porous stone, where a hand-made drawing was previously applied with a special, greasy paint. A powerful impetus to the further development of book production was given by the invention of photography. In 1839 the Frenchman L.J.M. Daguerre proposed a method for obtaining photographic images, which he called daguerreotype. This method was improved by Zh.N. Niepce and was called photozincography. Photography played a special role in the development of color printing. Starting from the time of the German printing pioneer A. Pfister (1460), prints of engravings, laid out in a set, were painted by hand. Lithography (chromolithography) made it possible to create separate color-separated clichés of one image, which, as a result of their sequential embossing, give a color print.

Significant progress is also being made in typesetting technology. The first patent for a typesetting machine was received by the Englishman W. Church back in 1822. There were inventions in the field of mechanized type foundry production, in different countries there was an improvement in typesetting mechanisms.

In 1897, the American inventor T. Latsen proposed a more advanced monotype typesetting machine, which is now used in conjunction with computer technology.

Offset rotary printing was invented in the last years of the 19th century. “Offset is a word of English origin, it means “transfer” and literally translates as “transfer printing” or “indirect printing”. Offset rotary printing transfers ink through intermediate rollers, which prevents the printing plates from rubbing.

The main result of the technical revolution in printing was the fact that the beginning of printing was laid as a special kind of human activity in the process of creating books.

7. Typography and printing business in the XX century

The 20th century in book printing became a period of transition from machines mechanizing individual production operations to automatic systems. Inventors put forward projects for fully automated printing houses. AT recent times portable printing houses appeared, which are based on microcomputer and microprocessor technology. Such printing houses are called desktop; they enable everyone to produce books at relatively low cost.

The first and very important achievement of printing is the invention of the most popular type of printing in our time - offset. The origins of offset printing technology can be considered lithographic printing, invented in Germany by the German Johann Senefelder at the beginning of the 19th century. The essence of lithographic printing technology was based on the use of the feature of fats to repel water. An image was applied to the printing plate, which was limestone with a bold lithographic pencil, and treated with a special composition that acts on places where the drawing was not applied. Thanks to the processing with a special composition, the places where the image was not applied were not perceived in the wet state of the paint. Under pressure, the ink from the printing plate was transferred to the paper. The method quickly became very popular. The lithography process continued to evolve and improve.

The development of lithography went in two different directions.

The first direction, which later turned out to be less successful, was printing on paper on cylinder or rotary machines.

In 1904, in the state of New Jersey, Ira W. Ruebel, a printer, had difficulty obtaining quality image. Rübel tried wrapping the impression cylinder with a soft rubber sheet to improve the image, which led him to an unexpected conclusion: an image that accidentally ended up not on paper, but on the rubber sheet of the impression cylinder, is itself printable and gives a much better and clearer print. With the help of assistants, Rübel designed a three-cylinder printing press, the first offset press in history.

The basis of another direction was the method of printing on tin, the meaning of which was that the printing cylinder, carrying a sheet of tin, was brought into contact not with a lithographic stone, but with an intermediate cylinder covered with rubber. The printing canvas made of rubber took on paint from the stone , and then there was a transfer of paint to tin. These studies were conducted by the American Hermann. In collaboration with his brothers Alfred and Charles Harris, he developed and built sheetfed rotary offset presses. At the beginning of 1905, the brothers signed a cooperation agreement, which resulted in the emergence of the Harris company, which produced the first offset printing machines. Hermann's activities, supported by Felix Böttcher, owner of a well-known factory for the production of rollers for printing presses in Leipzig, led to the creation joint-stock company VOMAG. The first general representative of this factory of printing machines was Hermann, under whose leadership the first web offset press, called "Universal", was designed and built.

One of the reasons for the invention of this technology was the need to protect against forgery of bank receipts. As a result of the research, the following technology was proposed, called "dry offset": the lithographic form was replaced by letterpress with a letterpress that does not require moisture, with offset ink transfer.

In our country, the scope of dry offset is very small. Basically, these are expensive printing of exclusive publications that require very high quality, high quality art printing, expensive art books, calendars intended as a gift to an important client or partner, etc.

This printing method uses special inks, the operation of which provides for certain limits. temperature regime, which is why machines using this technology require a special, rather expensive, temperature control system. The temperature in the printing section must be regulated within certain temperature limits of the working temperature of the inks used, and the temperature of the working room must be constant.

8. The most ancient Russian written culture (X-XI centuries)

In ancient times in Russia, just as in other Slavic countries, apparently, the practice of recording speech in Greek letters has long existed. From the 10th century, some monuments have survived that testify to the possibility of the Slavs becoming acquainted with written records and Byzantine numbering before the adoption of Christianity in 988. They are written in Greek writing, Cyrillic writing (Greek letters with the addition of signs to express specific Slavic sounds) and Cyrillic. The oldest, dating back to the 10th century, is considered to be a Cyrillic record of one word on a korchag from Gnezdovo, which is read differently, one of the reading options is "pea".

The fact that the Cyrillic alphabet was used in Russia before 988 is confirmed by the discovery in Novgorod of wooden cylinders for locking bags. Brief alphabetical and numerical records were made on the cylinders. They characterize the content of the bags, its cost.

Next in time are the inscriptions on the gold and silver coins of Prince Vladimir of the late 10th - early 11th centuries, which began to be minted immediately after the introduction of Christianity.

The next group of inscriptions is formed by epigraphy. Graffiti - records scratched on the walls of buildings. The most ancient graffiti dated 1052 - 1054. are found in Sophia of Kyiv - the cathedral church of the ancient Russian metropolis.

There are monuments of ancient Russian written culture that have left no traces. These include recordings on wax. They are short-lived due to the properties of the material on which they were reproduced. In addition, the method itself involved the destruction of the previous record in order to apply a new one on the same surface.

Another type of written culture that left almost no traces is the recording of numbers in the abacus system. An abacus is a counting method in which numerical "records" were made by laying out small objects (pebbles) according to special rules on some flat surface (Figure 5). Carved wooden calendars were a kind of writing. They were multifaceted wands, on the edges of which days were marked with notches, and religious holidays were marked with special signs.

Figure 5 - Abacus

The next group of monuments of ancient Russian literature are birch bark letters. Novgorod birch bark letters are the most ancient. They belong to the 11th-15th centuries. To obtain birch bark, birch bark was preliminarily boiled, cleaned, the white film was removed, cut and dried.

9. The first handwritten books in Ancient Russia

The most ancient Russian books that have come down to our time date back to the 11th century. But handwritten books, of course, existed before. They came to us along with the adoption of Christianity. The state needed a well-trained clergy, and also needed literate people for diplomatic, economic and other activities.

The first books came to Russia from Bulgaria, but very soon translation and correspondence of liturgical and other literature were established directly on Russian soil. The main centers of literary creativity, correspondence and distribution of books became large monasteries and cathedral churches, where highly educated people worked. For example, the monk of the Kiev Caves Monastery Nestor, the author of The Tale of Bygone Years, is rightfully called the founder of Russian historical science.

The material for the books was parchment. Books were written with iron ink, which had a brownish tint. Old iron and tannins were used for ink. Cherry glue and molasses were added for shine and density. For decoration, colored paints were used, especially red ones, as well as sheet gold, less often silver. Goose quills served as tools for writing. The tip of the pen was cut obliquely, a split was made in the middle of the tip.

Already the first books created in Russia testify to the high level of the book industry, to the extraordinary skill of book writers and designers. Inscriptions of letters, ornamented initial letters, intricate headpieces and drawings - all this shows how much care the ancient masters invested in the creation of the book.

Many of the books were made to order. Fine examples of ancient Russian handwritten books have survived to this day, such as Svyatoslav's "Izbornik" of 1073 (Figure 6). This is a collection of articles, rewritten by the deacon John and his assistant, commissioned by the eldest son of Yaroslav the Wise, Prince Izyaslav of Kyiv. "Izbornik" was copied from the original in Bulgarian, originally owned by the Bulgarian Tsar Simeon.

Figure 6 - Svyatoslav's "Izbornik"

"Izborniki" were very popular in Russia. They included fragments from the "holy scripture", the works of the "fathers of the church", the sayings of the sages, the works of ancient and medieval writers. They included articles on rhetoric, logic, poetics, and historical information.

In addition to the Izborniks, the Gospel was also widely circulated. The Mstislav Gospel, written around 1115, stands out for its artistic design. beautiful parchment, beautiful letter, an ornament made in gold and multi-colored paints, luxurious binding, covered with silver, with elegant gold plaques and filigree. From the record in the Gospel it follows that this book was rewritten by Alexa, the son of the priest Lazar, by order of the Novgorod prince Mstislav.

In those distant times there were books forbidden by the church. The first lists of "false" (forbidden) works appeared already in the 11th century. In Svyatoslav's Izbornik, in addition to the list of "true" books recommended for reading, two more are given. The first list included books with spelling errors. Such books were allowed to be read only by especially knowledgeable readers. Another list included "false" or "repudiated" books. They were to be destroyed, and their reading was strictly forbidden. They included pagan literature, and later the bans extended to books on various branches of the "secret" sciences (astronomy, astrology, cosmography, etc.), which rejected the teaching of the church about the creation of the world. This also included "witchcraft" books, collections of spells, dream books and the like. Reading "false" books was considered a grave sin.

. The beginning of Slavic printing and printing business in the Russian state

By the middle of the 15th century, the Russian lands united around Moscow. The Russian state developed rapidly culturally. The demand for the book has increased. In the south, Slavic society felt a huge shortage of books destroyed by the conquering Turks. In the west, the development of Slavic writing was hindered by the Catholic Church. For the Catholic Church, Slavic writing was associated with Orthodoxy, which she oppressed in every possible way in the lands subject to her. Because of these oppressions, there were few scribes who owned Slavic letters. By printing it was possible to get books much more and faster than by copying, so book printing immediately became in demand in the southern and western Slavic lands.

But soon in Russia there was a need for book printing. In the second half of the 15th century, it had already become widespread in the Slavic lands. It is believed that the printing house in Moscow was opened in 1563. Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets produced and cast one font to start their printing business. The first dated printed book in Russia appeared on March 1, 1564. It was printed in Moscow at the state printing house founded by Ivan the Terrible. The full title of the book is "Acts of the Apostles", but its short title "Apostle" is better known. The typing of the first page of the book began in April 1563 and on March 1, 1564, the printing of the "Apostle" was completed.

Meanwhile, Ivan Fedorov had opponents and envious people. They accused him of heresy, seeking to ruin the cause. This led Ivan Fedorov and his assistant Pyotr Mstislavets to flee unknown countries. But the enemies of printing failed to destroy the great work of the first printer. In 1568, the Moscow Printing House resumed its activities with the help of other printing masters - Timofeev and Tarasiev.

The time of flight from Moscow of the first printers Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets is not exactly known. Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets were in Belarus, in Zabludovo. A staunch opponent of the unification of Lithuania and Belarus with Poland, Khodkevich, together with the entire Belarusian people, fought against Polonization. To support the Orthodox Church and protect the Belarusian people, he decided to print liturgical books in the Slavic language. Khodkevich offered the Moscow fugitives to set up a printing house on his estate. The proposal was accepted, and in 1568 the printing of the book "The Teaching Gospel" began in Zabludovo. This book was the last that Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets published jointly. This is where their paths diverged.

In 1569, the Union of Lublin was concluded, which finally consolidated the unification of the Polish-Lithuanian state, after which relations with Moscow escalated, and Orthodoxy began to be gradually expelled from the state. Under such conditions, the educational activities of Ivan Fedorov became impossible. And then, together with his son, he moved to Lviv, where he had to become the founder of the printing business in Ukraine. Ivan Fedorov managed to organize a printing house in Lvov, where at the end of February in 1573 he started printing the first book in the new place. However, it was not possible to continue the work begun in Lvov. He got into debt to usurers and was forced to leave Lvov. At the suggestion of Prince Konstantin Ostrozhsky, Ivan Fedorov came to his estate to set up a printing house. Prince Ostrozhsky was also an opponent of the unification of Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine with Poland and a defender of the Orthodox faith and the Ukrainian people from the onslaught of the Polish Catholic Church.

From the beginning of 1577, the Ostroh printing house began to operate, and Ivan Fedorov began to print the famous Ostroh Bible in it. The Ostroh Bible is an outstanding monument of the book industry of the 2nd half of the 16th century, the most important edition printed in 1580-1581 after Ivan Fedorov moved to Ostrog. The Ostroh Bible was published in a large circulation for that time - 1500 copies.

11. Typography and printing business in Russia in the 17th century

Influence external factors could not but affect the development of education, science and culture. The majority of the country's population was illiterate, there was no female education, only the basics of literacy and the basics of Orthodoxy were taught at school. But, despite all this, in the 17th century the book business did not die - the creation of manuscripts and the publication of printed books continued.

It should be noted that, on the whole, the trend in the development of printing in Russia was the opposite of that in Europe. If in Europe the activities of private printing houses prevailed, then in Russia the monopolists of the book publishing house were the state and the church.

Another feature of the development of the book business was the fact that at the beginning of the 17th century handwritten book. Printed and handwritten books<#"center">. Typography and Printing in Russia in the 18th - 19th Centuries

In the era of Peter I, the publishing business in Russia received significant development. Per short time several large printing houses were opened: V.A. Kupriyanov (1705), "Senate Printing House", printing house of the Alexander Nevsky Monastery (1719), printing house of the Naval Academy, etc. During the life of Peter I, about 380 civil books were published, including 350 in Russian and 30 in foreign languages. In 1703, instead of the handwritten Chimes, the first Russian printed newspaper, Vedomosti, began to appear, which was widely distributed at that time (Figure 7). In 1728, the publication of the newspaper "Sankt-Peterburgskiye Vedomosti" began. A network of bookstores appeared.

Figure 7 - Newspaper "Vedomosti"

The publishing business received a new stage in its development after the decree of Catherine II "On free printing", which gave permission for the creation of private printing houses. Printing houses were opened, which served as publishing houses, I.G. Rachmaninov, A.N. Radishchev and others. A special merit in the development of publishing belongs to the largest cultural figure, publisher, editor, journalist Nikolai Ivanovich Novikov, who rented the printing house of Moscow University for 10 years (1779-1789). N.I. Novikov undertook the publication of the newspaper "Moskovskie Vedomosti" and a series of magazines. Also N.I. Novikov created the "Printing Company", showing himself also as a talented entrepreneur. Although thousands of different publications appeared in the 18th century, many of which belong to the masterpieces of Russian culture, the handwritten book continued to exist.

At the beginning of the 19th century, thanks to the reforms of Emperor Alexander I, which led to the weakening of censorship and the introduction of a short-term freedom of the press, the production of books increased significantly. In the first five years of the century, about two thousand books were published in Russian and foreign languages. The technique of printing moved forward thanks to a number of discoveries by Russian scientists. These include: the invention of electroplating by B.S. Jacobi, which led to greater stability of printing forms; improvements in the design of paper machines made by several inventors under the leadership of A.A. Betancourt; M. Nevyalov's invention of stereotypy - effective way obtaining copies of the printed form, which allowed to increase the circulation.

In 1816 - 1818. on the embankment of the Fontanka River in St. Petersburg under the guidance of engineer A.A. Betancourt (1758 - 1824), the Expedition for the Procurement of State Papers was formed, which included a paper mill and a printing house.

Academician V.M. introduced Russia to lithography, a new method of flat printing. Severgin. The first Russian edition, printed from a flat printing plate on stone, was the "Asian Musical Journal" (1816 - 1818), published in Astrakhan.

After the invention of photography (1839), great changes took place in the technique of illustration. Printing forms, made by hand, gradually began to be replaced by photomechanical ones.

Since 1823 A. A. Bestuzhev and K.F. Ryleev began to publish the almanac "Polar Star". The first issue of this almanac came out with a circulation of 600 copies and was immediately sold out.

Public upsurge in the 60s. affected both the overall growth of printed matter and the change in the subject matter of literature. Although many textbooks and religious books are published in the capital, as before, there is also an increase in the production of serious socio-economic and natural-science literature.

In the midst of the reaction of the 70-80s. the output of religious books is increasing and the circulation of books on social and economic issues is decreasing. Mass political literature in these years could not see the light.

Interest in the natural sciences in the 80s. noticeably weakened, the publication of books on natural science is reduced in comparison with the 60-70s. The number of books on the humanities has grown.

Late 80s - early 90s. was marked by a significant growth of typographical business in Russia. In 1891, there were 149 printing houses in the capital of the empire, in 1895 - already 185. Compared with the beginning of the 60s. the number of printing houses thus increased 2.5 times, and compared with the beginning of the century - more than 7 times.

13. Typography and printing business in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century

In Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, many books, brochures, and articles appeared on the topic of the state structure of the country that was of concern to everyone. The sore problem was constantly discussed on the pages of all socio-political periodicals.

The period from 1900 to 1917 is rich in historical events. During this time in Russia there were two wars, three revolutions, which significantly affected the state of the book business.

Formation of a single internal book market, further construction railways, expanding the network of private credit institutions contributed to the development of joint-stock companies. They accounted for more than 70 percent of printed matter.

During the first Russo-Japanese War, many branches of production suffered a decline, and book publishing increased volumes. For 1905 - 1907 more than 350 publishing houses appeared, producing mainly political literature.

A major role in the development of aesthetic tastes, art and technology of book preparation was played by the "Circle of Lovers of Russian Fine Editions".

To develop artistic ideas and methods of the art of the book, a group widely known under the name "World of Art" did a lot. In 1910, the Musaget publishing house was founded in Moscow, founded by art critic E.K. Medtner.

The Brockhaus-Efron publishing house in St. Petersburg became famous for the release of the encyclopedia, which began its activity in 1889.

14. Typography and printing business in Russia in 1917-1921.

The October Revolution led to the fall of the monarchical regime, the victory of Soviet power throughout the country, was accompanied by an ideological and political struggle, which ultimately resulted in a civil war. The irreconcilability of the opposing sides was manifested primarily in the desire of each party and political grouping to instill its own ideology into the consciousness of the masses. For this reason, agitation and propaganda reached an unprecedented scale. New press organs constantly appeared, old ones disappeared.

For your purposes political parties widely used by private and cooperative publishing houses. Thus, the cooperative publishing house "Kniga" published mainly the works of Russian Mensheviks and representatives of international opportunism, the partnership "Kolos" - books of the populist-Socialist-Revolutionary trend. The Mensheviks showed great publishing activity, releasing not only the works of their authors, but also foreign political literature, published newspapers " new life", "Working newspaper", "Forward". After the revolution, the major right-wing Socialist-Revolutionary organ "Delo Naroda" continued to appear. The Petrograd Socialist-Revolutionary publishing house published an anti-Soviet collection, the authors of which were party ideologists Chernov, Svyatitsky, Vishnyakov, Rosenblum and others. In full force The anarchist publishing house "Voice of Labor" was the first in Russia to publish the collected works of M. Bakunin. But among the fierce enemies of the Bolsheviks, first of all, one should single out the party of the Cadets with its harsh press, headed by the newspapers "Bulletin of the Party of People's Freedom" and "Rech". Struve published a respectable Cadet magazine, Russkaya Mysl, until the summer of 1918. Despite the decree on the liquidation of the bourgeois press and the prohibition of the Cadet Party, the newspaper Freedom of Russia continued to be published in Moscow in 1918.

Since 1919, the publishing houses of the People's Commissariat began to work social security, People's Commissariat of Food, People's Commissariat of Finance, People's Commissariat of Railways. During the creation of the first Soviet specialized publishing houses, the main principles for the preparation of the manuscript and the criteria for editorial analysis were determined. The publishing houses of the people's commissariats produced literature that corresponded to the tasks assigned to this industry: these were scientific, popular science, educational and reference books. People's Commissariats, in addition to books and brochures, printed leaflets and posters in mass editions, published periodicals. By the end of 1921, the publishing output of the people's commissariats accounted for a significant part of the total output of books in the country.

. Typography and Printing in Russia in the 1920s.

The new economic policy in the country's book business began with the weakening of political control over the publication and distribution of printed materials. First of all, the issue concerned the free sale of books, which replaced the distributive policy of "war communism." In the field of book publishing, private entrepreneurial activity was allowed. The new economic policy was aimed at restoring the printing industry, increasing the volume of printed matter published by state publishing houses with the participation of private entrepreneurs.

Planned guaranteed sales of books published state enterprises, represented in fact the process of regulation of consumption. This situation led to the fact that books were published that were ideologically consistent, in line with state interests and policies, but economically unprofitable.

The printing industry in the 1920s was in critical condition. Scattered small enterprises experienced difficulties in financing and finding customers.

The most acceptable way for the rise of the printing industry was to strengthen and create trusts. In 1922, a printing trust appeared in Moscow - Mospoligraftrest, which united six printing houses. Then a trust arose in Petrograd. The state of the printing industry depended on the state of the paper industry, which experienced similar difficulties.

Thus, in carrying out its policy in the field of printing, the state relied on the "commanding heights" - Gosizdat, which occupied a leading position in the country's book publishing. In 1927, it accounted for 75 percent of all printed matter.

In the early 1920s learned societies and institutions organized their own publishing houses. Among them are the Russian Academy of Sciences, the Communist Academy, the V.I. Lenin, etc. In particular, on the initiative of the Petrograd professors, a publishing house was conceived to publish Plato's works in Russian translation.

17. Typography and printing business in Russia in 1930, during the Second World War

At the turn of the 1920s-1930s, trends began to grow in the country, indicating a purposeful change in the political and economic course. There was a formation of a command-administrative system for managing the economy, culture and social life. The multistructural nature of the economy was eliminated. The party sought to create a monolithic society based on ideological and social unity. This task required a unified planning, a unified structure for organizing the entire national economy under total party-state control.

Planning for the development of the socialist economy also provided for the planned development of cultural development, including publishing. In April 1929, the first five-year plan for the development of the national economy of the USSR was approved. On its basis, the Press Committee developed a sectoral plan. The five-year plan of printing was the first experience of long-term planning in the publishing business.

The five-year plan of the press played a big role in the transition of the entire industry to a single comprehensive planning basis.

The second main base of the domestic printing industry was the Leningrad plant named after. Max Gelts, where, since 1932, the production of a line-casting typesetting machine (linotype) was organized.

In the 1930s, book publishing was especially acutely affected by the pernicious influence of the totalitarian regime. It was expressed, in particular, in the distortion of the thematic structure of the publishing repertoire and circulation of certain types of printed matter. Publishers were forcibly shut down scientific institutions(for example, "Asademia" and the Research Institute of Book Science in Leningrad).

The attitude towards the book has changed. main goal book publishing and bookselling began to ensure the solution of party propaganda tasks, as well as satisfying the need for utilitarian and practical knowledge. The origins of this approach are in the resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks of December 28, 1928 "On serving the mass reader with a book."

The role of censorship in publishing has increased. The Main Directorate for Literature and Publishing of the People's Commissariat of Education of the RSFSR (Glavlit) exercised political and ideological control over all printed works, manuscripts, photographs, paintings, etc. intended for publication and distribution. The powers of Glavlit were expanded: it had the right to confiscate publications that were not subject to distribution, allowed or prohibited the opening of publishing houses and periodicals, compiled lists of works prohibited for publication and distribution. Preliminary control of printed materials was carried out through political editors (political controllers), that is, authorized Glavlit at publishing houses, editorial offices, printing houses, etc.

The result of the development of publishing in the 1930s was the creation of a system characterized, firstly, by total centralization. All its elements were managed and planned from the center along all lines - political, economic, production, personnel - and were in a rigid hierarchical structure. Secondly, this system was etatized and transferred to the state budget all the book publishing and book trade of the country. The system had sufficient power and could solve the problems of publishing and distributing these products throughout the country and in the right quantity, which was required by the party and the state.

17. Typography and printing business in Russia in the post-war period of the Great Patriotic War

The damage suffered by the Soviet book industry during the war years was very great. In order to reach the pre-war level, it was necessary to increase the number of publications by almost 2.5 times, and the circulation - by almost 2 times. It was necessary to re-create publishing houses and printing enterprises on the territory of the Ukrainian, Byelorussian, Moldavian SSR, a number of regions of the RSFSR, which were temporarily occupied by the Nazis. It was necessary to provide printing houses necessary materials, improve production technology.

In July 1945, the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks adopted a resolution "On the printing design of books." The Central Committee of the party demanded that printers and publishers ensure readability, strength and improve the appearance of books and magazines.

To improve the culture of publishing, the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks considered it expedient to organize periodic exhibitions of books and magazines, to widely involve writers, artists, printers and publishers in discussing the quality of artistic and printing performance of literature. Measures were identified for the training of book designers and printing masters. The printing industry has mastered the production of various typesetting machines, photomechanical and plate equipment, new types of printing presses, powerful newspaper units, automatic binders and semiautomatic machines. In 1947, the production of letter-casting typesetting machines began in the USSR. The in-line organization of stitching and binding processes has received wide application.

Print shops are equipped with more modern machines. Multi-color printing, in particular offset printing, is widely distributed. In the second half of the 50s. more than 100 new enterprises were put into operation, including a number of large printing plants.

Existing book factories and printing houses expanded. The Leningrad Offset Printing Factory was completely reconstructed. She began to give 2.5 times more products than before. The reconstruction of the Leningrad printing house named after Ivan Fedorov has been completed.

18. Modern printing production in Russia

In recent years, our printing industry has undergone cardinal qualitative changes. And yet, for a number of important indicators (productivity, return on assets), domestic printing is still inferior to foreign production.

Printing houses are becoming more powerful, acquiring new equipment, using new technologies and increasing their turnover. Such a rapid development is primarily due to an increase in demand for printed products among the population, as well as an increase in demand for printed advertising products. Increased not only turnover, but also the quality of products.

More glossy products began to be produced in production - magazines, booklets, brochures, in which customers' advertising began to look the most advantageous. The expression "advertising is the engine of trade" has become very appropriate in the printing industry.

According to statistics, there are about 6,500 printing companies in Russia. 1/3 of them are located in Moscow, about 10% - in St. Petersburg and a little more than half in the provinces. Due to the blurring of the market, it is difficult to determine the most demanded enterprises, we can only highlight a few. This is, for example, the group "Terem , printing house "Arkomis-Moscow".

Despite such a rapid development of this segment of the industry, the printing industry has its own specific problems. Let's dwell on some of them.

For the manufacture of most magazines and promotional products, publishing houses use coated paper, which has never been produced in Russia. Those. publishers are constantly dependent on imports, while overpaying for its import into the country.

Customs legislation also hinders the development of the printing industry as an industry. High import duties on paper and equipment play a role here.

And, finally, in our country there has always been and remains a shortage of qualified personnel.

Thus, summing up, we can note that with a total positive characterization printing market, it also has its own problems that need support at the state level.

Conclusion

Thus, printing was invented twice: in China<#"center">List of sources used

1. History of the book [Electronic resource]: the history of writing among ancient peoples / 2007-2013. - Access mode: http://www.hi-edu.ru/e-books/HB/05-2. htm

History of the book [Electronic resource]: a book in the Middle Ages / 2007-2013. - Access mode: http://www.hi-edu.ru/e-books/HB/06-1. htm

Govorova A.A., Kupriyanova T.G. The history of the book [Electronic resource]: a book in the first centuries of printing / 2001 - Access mode: http://www.hi-edu.ru/e-books/HB/07-1. htm

Typography in North America in the 17th - 18th centuries. [Electronic resource]: 2006. - Access mode: http://referat. n.p. by/reports/view-737

History of the book [Electronic resource]: typography and printing business in the 17th century / 2007-2013. - Access mode: http://hi-edu.ru/e-books/RedaktirObchiyKurs/red_010. htm

History of the book [Electronic resource]: history of foreign books in the 19th century / 2007-2013. - Access mode: http://www.hi-edu.ru/e-books/HB/09-1. htm

Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet encyclopedia 1969-1978. - Access mode:

Sukhorukov K.M. professional association in book business in the USA // Nauch. - tech. achievements and best practices in the region. ed. deeds, polygraph prom-sti and book. trade. 1991. Issue 10. pp.13-14.

Govorova A.A., Kupriyanova T.G. History of the book [Electronic resource]: handwritten book of Ancient Russia / 2001 - Access mode: http://www.hi-edu.ru/e-books/HB/11-1. htm

Site of the Polotsk Spaso-Evfrosinievskiy monastery [Electronic resource]: development of book printing in Russia / 2009. - Access mode: http://spas-monastery. by/library/articles_and_publications. php? id=821

Decoration. [Electronic resource]: Russian book printing in the 17th century 2008 / - Access mode:

The history of printing [Electronic resource]: publishing in Russia in the XVIII-XIX centuries - Access mode:

History of the book [Electronic resource]: book in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century / 2007-2013. - Access mode: http://hi-edu.ru/e-books/HB/18-1. htm

History of the book [Electronic resource]: book in Russia in 1917-1921. / 2007-2013. - Access mode: http://hi-edu.ru/e-books/HB/19-1. htm

Dinershtein E.A. The Publishing Reform of 1921: On the History of the Decree of the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR of November 28, 1921, signed by Lenin "On the payment for printed works" // Book: research and materials. - 1970. - Sat. 20. - S.71-86.

Librovich, S.F. History of books in Russia. - SPb - M.: Partnerships M.O. Wolf, 1914. - 227 p.

Barenbaum I.E. History of the book: a textbook for universities. - 2nd ed., corrected. and additional - M.: Book, 1984. - S.214.

Publishing and printing complex "Vesti" [Electronic resource]: printing in modern Russia 2013. - Access mode:

Bank of abstracts [Electronic resource]: history of the book / 2005-2013. - Access mode:

Tutoring

Need help learning a topic?

Our experts will advise or provide tutoring services on topics of interest to you.
Submit an application indicating the topic right now to find out about the possibility of obtaining a consultation.