Export of capital
In the era of the formation and domination of big capital, in which the prevailing role begins to play financial capital, there is a gradual reorientation from the international exchange of goods to the export of capital. As a result, international economic relations received an additional source of its development, when not a commodity is exported in order to realize its value and make a profit, but the value is exported in order to advance the production of goods in other countries, i.e. creating new values, their implementation and profit. Based on all of the above, we come to the conclusion that the export of capital is such a type of international economic relations, when value is exported abroad in cash or in another form for the purpose of production and profit, obtaining other economic and political benefits.
At the same time, this phenomenon in international economic relations does not mean the displacement of world trade itself. We are talking about the emergence of a qualitatively new phenomenon in international economic relations, which, on the one hand, developed in parallel with the international exchange of goods, on the other hand, became a new prerequisite and impetus for the further development of world trade. The fact is that quite often the export of capital is carried out with the aim of not only penetrating and opening the national markets of other countries, but also producing products in order to export them to other countries, including often the country that exports capital.
Initially, when the world was divided into metropolises and colonies, until the 60s. In the twentieth century, the export of capital performed mainly the function of ensuring the supply of raw or semi-finished materials from the colonies to the mother country in the interests of developing their own industry. As a result of this process, in the undeveloped part of the world, agricultural production (usually monoculture) and extractive industries developed, while in the metropolises attention was concentrated on processing and manufacturing industries.
Under ϶ᴛᴏm, sometimes entire regions were declared a zone of special interests of a particular country. This is actually one of the manifestations of colonialism. In this regard, the Monroe Doctrine, proclaimed in the first half of the 19th century, is well known. and legally fixed the expansion of the United States in Latin America with non-intervention, neutrality of European states.
Reasons for the export of capital
There are a number of reasons behind the outflow of capital. These include, first of all, ensuring access to raw materials and guaranteeing their stable supplies. At the same time, the exported capital could use cheap labor on a large scale, which made it possible to significantly reduce production costs and increase the competitiveness of manufactured products.
Excluding the above, it is extremely important to take into account the fact that the unfolding competition within the national markets of industrialized countries led to a reduction in the cost of manufactured products, a decrease in the level of profitability, and ϶ᴛᴏ cast doubt on new capital investments. As a result, an excess of capital arose, which was looking for a more profitable ϲʙᴏ of its application abroad. The export of capital became that “vent” through which capital flowed to other countries due to the difficulties of its advance into the national economy.
An important role in the development of capital exports was played by the protectionist import policy pursued by almost all countries of the world, which ensured, on the one hand, the protection of the national industry, on the other hand, the influx of foreign capital in the interests of the development of those industries and industries for which there was not enough national capital or they possessed sufficient technological capabilities, experience and knowledge in organizing the production of certain types of products.
The export of capital performed a dual economic and political role in relation to the countries - recipients of capital. First of all, the formation of transnational corporations or transnational associations of capital, not to mention the growth of foreign trade turnover between countries, tied such countries financially and economically to one or another industrialized country. Secondly, economic dependence was the tool with the help of which political influence was exercised.
The next reason for the further increase in the export of capital was the differences in national conditions for the development of equipment and technology, the total work force. It must be borne in mind that there are two, sometimes opposite, flows of capital.
From one point of view, we are talking on the export of capital in order to penetrate another national market based on the possession of technology, organization, experience and knowledge in the production of a product. In this case, the country - the recipient of capital gets the opportunity to develop production within the country on the basis of the best achievements in the field of technology, technology, organization and management. The exporting country receives an additional source of financial resources in the form of re-export of corporate profits from abroad.
On the other hand, the export of capital can be carried out precisely due to the lack of national technical, technological, organizational and managerial achievements. In this case, financial capital rushes to those countries, firms and corporations that have such achievements. By interacting with the domestic capital of these countries, foreign capital receives the necessary technical and technological knowledge, experience and other practical information and information in order to re-export them to the ϲʙᴏ country and thus increase the technical and economic level of national production.
A huge role in the export of capital was played by the formation and development of international infrastructure, primarily transport and information systems, which significantly "brought together" the countries and provided conditions for further deepening and expanding the internationalization of the production of not only finished products, but also partial products, semi-finished products, assemblies and parts. This became the basis for the development of international specialization and cooperative production.
Capital outflow and ecology
Since the end of the 60s. there has been a clear trend of moving the so-called dirty industries from industrialized countries to developing countries. This process was accelerated by the adoption by Western countries of strict environmental protection standards. As a result, the environmental situation has softened in the developed part of the world and worsened in developing countries. Attention should be paid to the fact that environmental issues the West has a double approach: one - to itself, the other - to developing countries. Moreover, he advocates rather harshly for ensuring environmental security, often blaming developing countries, as well as former socialist countries, including Russia, for all the sins. At the same time, firstly, the developed countries of the West, with the help of their private capital, moved dirty production to the less developed part of the world.
Secondly, if these countries are so concerned about the global environmental situation, then they should really provide financial and other means to help transform "dirty" industries into "clean" ones. Indeed, in most, if not all, Western countries, there are virtually no zones left unaffected by anthropogenic activity. It is worth noting that they remained in another part of the world (Russia accounts for more than 30%) developed countries(not to involve them in economic circulation), it is necessary, on the one hand, to reduce requests for the import of resources from these countries, on the other hand, to provide financial and other assistance to countries that do not involve the existing ecologically clean zones in economic circulation. Non-compliance and ignoring of these requirements will have a consequent deterioration in the environmental situation. Without certain compensations, no country will be willing to work for the benefit of all, infringing on their own and national interests. Excluding the above, these countries have the right to demand compensation from the West for environmental degradation as a result of the functioning of foreign capital.
Forms of capital export
The export of capital is carried out in two forms: entrepreneurial and loan. The entrepreneurial form of capital export is the investment of capital in various sectors and areas of economic activity in order to make a profit. By the way, this form of capital investment is carried out in the form of direct and portfolio investments.
Direct investments - ϶ᴛᴏ such investments of foreign capital, which provide its owner with control over the activities of a foreign enterprise. Direct investments can be carried out in the form of both direct investments in fixed capital (real capital) and buying up blocks of shares of already operating enterprises abroad (fictitious capital)
Portfolio investments are capital investments in real or fictitious form, which do not provide the owner of foreign capital with the right to control the activities of the enterprise. According to the IMF, investments are classified as direct if a foreign investor has at least 25% of the company's shares, and according to US statistics - at least 10%.
The loan form of the export of capital consists in granting loans to individual states, cities, banks, enterprises and their associations at agreed interest rates. The source of the loan form of capital export can also be a variety of business entities: states, international financial and economic organizations, banks, corporations, companies.
The advantages of the entrepreneurial form of export of capital in comparison with the loan are determined by: unlimited time of its operation; maintaining ownership of capital; management of the exported capital. At the same time, it should be noted that when using the loan form of capital import, the subject of import has much broader rights regarding its use, disposal and control.
Excluding the above, the advantage of the entrepreneurial form of capital outflow, especially direct investment, is essentially that it is accompanied by the import of new technologies and equipment, foreign experience and knowledge in technical, production and organizational and managerial activities, raising the level of qualification of domestic specialists, training and retraining of the workforce.
Indicators of participation in international capital migration
The participation of the country in the international movement of capital is assessed by a number of indicators. It is important to note that one of them will be the volume of foreign assets (investments) of a given country, referred to its GDP (GNP), i.e. share of foreign investment in GDP (I′):
where Izar are the country's investment assets abroad.
Another indicator will be the ratio of the volume of direct investments of a given country abroad and the volume of foreign direct investments in its territory (R p):
where I salary – foreign direct investments of the given country; And in.p. - foreign direct investment in the territory of the country.
If the value of the indicator is greater than one, then ϶ᴛᴏ indicates a positive balance in the migration flows of capital from country to country, if less than one, then it indicates an excess of foreign capital inflow over the export of domestic capital from the country.
The next indicator for assessing capital migration will be the ratio of a country's external debt to GDP or the volume of exports of a given country, i.e. indicator of external debt (E′ ext)
where Zin - the volume of external debt; exp is the volume of exports.
This indicator is important for assessing the solvency of the country in relation to foreign partners, as well as for determining the level of financial and economic dependence of the country and the possibility of pursuing an independent foreign and domestic economic policy.
Changes in the international movement of capital
In the postwar years, new forms of internationalization of capital and production emerged.
Among them, first of all, it is extremely important to single out the export of patents and licenses, know-how, consulting services in the engineering field, and organizational and managerial services. Licensing agreements occupy the largest place in terms of the volume of international transactions. Under ϶ᴛᴏm, initially, traditionally, the transfer of licenses was carried out through intra-company channels of TNCs. However, since the 1970s the share of intercompany agreements (including small firms) of different nationality grew rapidly. Their share in license agreements for the period 1975-1990. increased from 17 to 40%. A variety of licensing agreements will be international "franchising" - agreements that allow an enterprise in one country to use the trademark or trade name of a foreign company, as well as receive from it for a fee technical assistance, services to improve the skills of the workforce, the organization of trade and management.
Apart from the above, contracts for technical assistance, marketing services and other intellectual assistance have become widespread. An important place in the export of capital is occupied by contracts (agreements) on the delivery of turnkey enterprises; they are divided into "light" and "heavy". "Heavy" contracts differ from "light" ones in that after the commissioning of the facility, they provide for the further transfer of managerial, technological and production experience, training of employees, and assistance in the sale of products manufactured by this enterprise.
Turning to the trends in the export of capital, it is extremely important to note that in the second half of the twentieth century. Significant changes have taken place in the ϶ᴛᴏ sector. First of all, there was a sharp change in the balance of power in the ϶ᴛᴏth region between the countries - exporters of capital. On the eve of the First World War, Great Britain occupied the first place in the export of capital, followed by France and Belgium. In the mid 90s. Approximately 40% of world financial assets were already controlled by Japanese capital, while American capital was about half as much.
There has also been a significant change in the direction of capital movement. Until the middle of the twentieth century, the bulk of capital was exported to developing countries. The industrialized countries accounted for less than 1/3 of direct investment at that time. At the same time, by the end of the century, the lion's share in the export of capital accounted for the mutual investment of industrialized countries.
The role of the mining and manufacturing industry as a sphere of foreign capital investment has also changed. There was a sharp increase in the share of the manufacturing industry in the total volume of foreign investment and an equally sharp reduction in the raw materials industries.
In the second half of the twentieth century. there was a growing gap between the growth of foreign production based on exported capital and the export of goods. Overall, the ϶ᴛᴏt gap in relation to industrialized countries has increased by about three times.
Closely related to the above trend is another one - the growth of reinvestment, i.e. an increasing part of the profit received from the functioning of the exported capital is not repatriated, but reinvested in the development of production abroad. It should be noted that since the 1980s the share of reinvested profits began to exceed the 50% threshold in the total volume of foreign investment. In connection with the foregoing, it is extremely important to distinguish between the "export of capital", i.e. inflow of investments from abroad, and "investments spent", which include reinvestment.
An important role in the expansion of capital is played by the state foreign economic policy aimed at stimulating investment abroad. A whole system of incentives operates in the ϶ᴛᴏ direction. It is important to note that one of them will be the issuance of state guarantees in case of loss of ownership of capital or damage from unforeseen circumstances. These guarantees are issued for up to 20 years at various percentages of the initial value of the exported capital (at least 70%) and 100% compensation for the loss of reinvested profits.
Another tool to stimulate the export of capital will be financial and credit assistance, which is traditionally provided in the form of soft loans and subsidies. This will be an important help for those companies that wish to make foreign investments, but do not have sufficient financial resources to implement the investment project.
The next way to intensify investment activity abroad is the provision of tax rebates and other benefits from the amounts of foreign capital investments.
Government incentives can be selective. The essence of such a selective policy regarding the export of capital lies in the establishment by the state of certain priorities of its geographical orientation, industry affiliation, and scope of application. In particular, such a policy was typical for France in the 80s - early 90s, the five-year plans for economic, social and cultural development of which contained measures to provide loans to corporations penetrating into the advanced industries of the United States, as well as benefits for overseas activities of small and medium-sized firms.
International labor movement
An independent process in international economic relations will be the migration of labor. At the same time, taking into account the specifics of this resource, which is directly related to the person himself as its immanent component, when considering the causes and conditions of labor migration, not only economic, but also political, social, legal, religious, national, cultural, demographic prerequisites should be taken into account. and consequences.
Causes of labor migration
Without going into the socio-data area of population migration, we will focus mainly on the modern socio-economic causes that cause the international movement of labor resources.
First of all, it is extremely important to point out the cause of the demographic state, with which the surplus population and labor force are associated. It is worth noting that it occurs when the scale and structure of social production does not match the supply of labor. As a result, part of the population emigrates in search of jobs and improvement of its social status to other countries. This is all the more possible as a result of low birth rates and subtle population growth dynamics in a number of countries. At the same time, intensive flows of population migration are already generating socio-political and other problems in countries that receive immigrants. Examples of this are industrialized countries such as France and Germany.
Another reason for the international migration of labor resources is the difference in wage levels, which also causes the flow of labor from one country to another. We are talking primarily about highly qualified workers, specialists, scientific and technical personnel, scientific and pedagogical personnel. Countries from which such resources emigrate play the role of a donor, while countries that receive these immigrants “pump out” resources of the highest quality without spending any money on their formation and preparation.
Moreover, the “vampire” states pursue a rather flexible immigration policy in terms of forms, methods, and timing. The United States and the former socialist countries can serve as a clear demonstration. For example, in the United States from 1990 to 1994. the immigration quota was increased by 1.5 times. This made it possible to "pump brains" from these countries, since the latter began to experience enormous difficulties in financing science, education, culture, professional growth, etc. Moreover, development programs are being imposed on Russia and other countries that provide for a sharp reduction in public spending on social needs under the threat of non-provision of loans. Russian system education, science and culture have experienced and continue to experience the consequences of "charitable" foreign aid in the fight against inflation and the formation of a market economy. Many have been destroyed in our country. scientific schools, especially in the field of fundamental sciences, the education system has deteriorated sharply, the level of culture has decreased.
Among other reasons for the migration of the labor force, one should mention the cyclical nature of economic development and the structural shifts taking place in the national economy. During economic crises and structural transformations, cyclical and structural unemployment is formed in the national economy. Under these conditions, workers in the spheres and sectors of the national economy, which have an excess of labor force, rush abroad in search of jobs that will provide them with professional training.
We note the fact that in modern conditions a significant role in the migration of labor resources is played by scientific and technical progress and the movement of real capital, followed by a flow of specialists, scientists, teaching staff, engineers, and highly skilled workers. Moreover, in parallel, there is a training of specialists and workers from national personnel capable of performing certain professional functions during the operation of newly commissioned facilities.
It is also necessary to take into account those qualitative changes that occur under the influence of a frontal scientific and technological revolution. The use of new technologies, the widespread introduction of microprocessors and robots sharply reduce the role of human labor in production processes, reduce the scale of labor-intensive industries, which leads to a reassessment of the role of countries with so-called cheap labor markets. The use of fundamentally new technologies can significantly reduce the demand for raw materials, which will put developing countries in front of the problem of foreign exchange earnings and, in particular, the problem of economic growth.
The process of population migration in each country is regulated and regulated by its legislation and international legal acts, if they are signed by ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙ by the governing state bodies. Two trends can be identified in the legal framework for regulating migration flows. It is important to note that one of them advocates the free movement of labor and population as one of important conditions open economy. The other is associated with restrictions in the field of international migration and the implementation of a policy of protectionism in relation to both immigrants and emigrants. Sometimes it is only unidirectional. Everything depends on many components that determine the specifics of the country, primarily related to the population, the labor market, its structure and prospects for economic development.
It is worth saying that each country develops a national migration policy, which is based on a set of legislative, organizational, financial and other measures aimed at regulating emigration and immigration flows: granting and depriving citizenship or other status of residence in the country, attracting foreign labor resources, creating a system social protectionϲʙᴏ their workers during their stay abroad, regulating the flow of refugees and their social protection.
Regulation of international labor flows
Migration flows of the population and labor resources can be classified in several directions or groups. These are primarily immigrants and non-immigrants admitted to the country in ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙ and with legislation and other regulatory documents governing the process of entering the country.
Another direction is represented by illegal immigrants - persons who illegally crossed the border of the state or legally entered the country, but did not leave it after the granted period of stay in order to get a job. A significant part of this kind of persons is the so-called group of illegal workers. This is the most disadvantaged and disenfranchised part of the population of any country, since they are not subject to any rights and requirements to ensure decent working and living conditions.
The next direction is formed from contract workers who enter the country for the periods specified in contracts concluded with countries with excess labor. In particular, in the oil-producing countries of the Arab East, the number of attracted workers from abroad sometimes reaches 60-75% of their total population.
A significant share in migration is occupied by refugees who become victims of wars, exacerbation of ethnic, interreligious or other relations. According to the UN at the beginning of the 90s. There were about 16 million refugees in the world. The fate of refugees in the expanses of the former Soviet Union is tragic. The unconstitutional abolition of a great power led to the fact that more than 25 million of the so-called Russian-speaking population turned out to be outside Russia, the bulk of whom are Russians. As a result, the number of migrants who have replenished the population of Russia exceeds 6 million people, most of whom can be safely classified as refugees.
Laws and regulations on the regulation of migration flows, having secured the rights of citizens to freely travel, live and work abroad, in the conditions of the political and economic crisis, have become an important prerequisite for the emigration of scientific and technical personnel from Russia. Given the underfunding of the education, science, and healthcare systems, Russia cannot allow the process of “brain stealing” to be extended. It turns out that for decades society has been carrying the burden of ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙ expenses in order to benefit the prosperous countries of the West in the most difficult time for the country. In recent years, thanks to "brain stealing", the United States annually saves about 7 billion dollars in education and scientific activities alone. This is the real economic rationale for the struggle for "human rights".
How politicized the US struggle for human rights is evidenced by their ambiguous and inadequate reaction to the situation of the Russian-speaking population in Latvia and the Kurds in Turkey, as well as to a purely internal affair of Yugoslavia - the situation in Kosovo. In the first case, when the rights of the Russians, who historically cannot but be considered the indigenous population of the Baltic region, are violated, some vague wishes are heard from the United States and no reaction is heard - to the genocide against the Kurds in Turkey, the number of which exceeds 20 million people. In the second case, when an Albanian ethnic group was formed on the primordially Serbian lands, which has much broader rights than the Russians in Latvia, the United States achieved the introduction of severe economic sanctions and carried out aggression against the sovereign state, Yugoslavia.
It is necessary to realize that along with human rights, there are also the rights of the people, society, state, whose interests have always been and should be priority in Rus', especially in the difficult and formidable time of socio-economic upheavals experienced by our Motherland, as well as in the context of a changing geopolitical situation in the world.
Economic integration
It is worth saying - the political and economic nature of integration
Economic integration - ϶ᴛᴏ new step and the form of internationalization of the economic life of various countries, expressing a combination of two interrelated processes: the mutual interweaving of economies and the pursuit of a coordinated policy in economic relations between the countries included in this grouping, and in relations with third countries. Therefore, economic integration is a political and economic process to create a single economic space of countries included in the integration group, with a single mechanism for regulating economic and social relations between them.
It is a way and form of resolving the contradiction between national economic isolation and gigantically grown productive forces that transcend national boundaries. Considering the fact that all processes of internationalization of economic life and the movement of factors of production associated with them require the creation of certain conditions, the adoption of legal norms and the conclusion of political agreements between states, economic integration objectively develops into political integration.
The latter finds its ϲʙᴏe manifestation in the creation of interstate and supranational bodies of control and power. In particular, in European integration - ϶ᴛᴏ the European Parliament, the Council of Ministers, or the Council of the European Union (EU), various kinds of commissions to address certain socio-economic problems of the grouping countries. At the same time, it is a difficult path, since the movement along it affects the most diverse national interests of countries, which can often come into conflict. In addition, the process of political and economic integration in one way or another concerns the problem of sovereignty, independence, self-sufficiency. Material published on http: // site
Therefore, in these matters, countries have to make mutual concessions.
Factors Determining Economic Integration
The main goal of integration will be to provide the most favorable conditions for the functioning of national capitals within the framework of the single economic space of the united countries. Such conditions include, first of all, measures to eliminate quotas and licensing of mutual deliveries of goods. A quota is understood as the allowable amount of goods imported into a given country, expressed in natural or value terms, under licensing - obtaining permission to export certain goods and services to a certain country. Quite often, a license also contains an element of quota.
To stimulate mutual trade, measures are being taken to abolish customs tariffs, i. foreign trade taxation. In particular, in the EU, customs taxation has actually been eliminated, as well as quotas and licensing.
Another condition for the development of integration will be the mitigation and removal of obstacles to the free movement of capital and labor, as well as the free movement of citizens of the integrated countries. Ensuring this condition opens the way to such a migration of capital and labor, which allows not only to eliminate the disproportions of these factors of production in individual countries, but also to form the prerequisites for their more effective interaction in time and space.
At the state and interstate levels, we are talking primarily about the gradual unification of economic policy by the countries - members of the integration group. Excluding the above, at the same levels, a single customs policy (primarily the establishment of a single tariff) in relation to third countries is agreed upon. Moreover, it should be noted that the so-called unified customs policy is selective and differentiated in relation to both entire groups of countries and certain commodity groups, individual goods. There will be both economic and political moments, which are guided by the countries - participants of the integration bloc.
In addition to economic reasons, other factors also influence the process of countries' integration. Among them, first of all, the territorial and geographical proximity of countries, the national characteristics of individual countries and their different positions in the world economy system should be mentioned. The integration of countries allows them to strengthen their economic and political positions in the world community and protect their regional interests. Apart from the above, integration allows the united countries to compete more successfully in the world economy with stronger partners for the spheres of its political and economic influence in the developing part of the world.
At the same time, the deployment of integration processes creates optimal conditions for the organization of large-scale industries oriented to a large regional market, opens up access to various kinds of resources, new technologies, accumulated experience and knowledge in certain areas and industries of various national economies. Integration provides space for solving regional (on a national and integrated scale) acute social problems, primarily employment, social protection, security and guarantees.
The integration association of countries at the same time allows you to create privileged conditions for business entities operating within the economic group, and protect industry, agriculture and other areas and sectors of the national economy from external competitors. Integration enables the united countries to act as a cohesive group in solving emerging international economic, financial, monetary, social, political and military-strategic problems, more confidently defend both national and regional interests, as well as pursue a unified scientific and technological policy, which opens up new opportunities for accelerating scientific and technical progress, access to new technologies.
With all this, integration processes are contradictory. These are contradictions between the national and international interests of the participating countries, national and supranational approaches to solving economic, social and political problems, the foreign economic and foreign policy interests of each participating country, between international groupings and other countries. It is important to consider these contradictions from the standpoint of not only integrating countries, but also all participants in the world economy and the world community. It is no secret that the world is constantly undergoing processes leading to a change in the balance of power in the international arena. Vivid evidence of this are the examples of Japan, China, the Soviet Union (Russia), the countries of the Asia-Pacific region.
By the way, the stages of economic integration
From the point of view of organizational and legal forms, integration in its development goes through several stages. In nai more a simple form is a free trade zone, within the framework of which it will announce the gradual abolition of trade restrictions, the reduction and elimination of customs tariffs for participating countries.
The next stage will be a customs union, in which free trade is supplemented by the introduction of a single foreign trade tariff in relation to third countries and the implementation of a coordinated foreign economic policy.
It is interesting to note that the customs union is often supplemented by a payment union that ensures the mutual convertibility of the currencies of the member countries of the economic group and the introduction of a single unit of account.
These forms of economic integration of countries cover exclusively the sphere of interstate commodity exchange and financial settlements. It is important to note that, however, despite all this, regardless of the goals announced by the integrating countries, they are tested for the seriousness of their intentions by measures to streamline mutual exchange, settlements, and currency conversion. And only then proceed to the implementation of production and economic integration processes.
Economic integration is ultimately focused on creating conditions for the free movement of factors of production, which opens the way to interweaving the production and economic relations of economic entities of the countries participating in the integration group and requires coordination of not only external, but also internal economic policy of the state.
At the final stage of economic integration, countries come to unite in an economic and monetary union, which involves not only the creation of a single economic space, but also the unification of legislative and other legal norms that regulate not only economic activity but also social, political, humanitarian issues of these countries. With ϶ᴛᴏm, currency fragmentation is eliminated common market by not just introducing a single unit of account, but by abolishing national currencies and switching to a single currency for all countries. It should be noted that the greatest success (so far the only one) in this area has been achieved by the member countries of the EEC, which have already introduced the euro as a single unit of account, and in two years it will replace most of the national currencies of the countries that are members of the union.
Until November 1, 1993, the Western European integration grouping was called the European Economic Community.
Among the major integration groupings, one should also mention the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which unites the USA, Canada and Mexico; Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), which includes Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Philippines, Vietnam; Latin American Integration Association (LAI); Economic Community of West African Countries (ECOWAS); Asia-Pacific Economic Community (APEC), etc.
conclusions
1. The limited nature of world trade, the overcoming of protectionist barriers to exported goods, the use of relatively cheap national resources of other countries led to the export of not goods, but capital for the purpose of their production in such countries. If the export of goods embodies the export of value for the purpose of its realization and profit, then when exporting capital, value is exported in order to “create” profit through the production and sale of goods abroad.
2. The export of capital is carried out either in business or in loan forms. In the entrepreneurial form of capital export, it is supposed to be invested in production in order to make a profit. In the loan form of the export of capital, there are credit relations carried out on the basis of loans at pre-agreed interest rates. Wherein entrepreneurial form export of capital can be represented by direct or portfolio investment. Direct investment allows you to establish control over a foreign enterprise, while portfolio investment does not provide the right to such control.
3. In the movement of capital in the second half of the XX century. there have been significant changes. If earlier the bulk of capital was exported to developing countries, now a large share in the export of capital falls on the mutual investment of industrialized countries. A structural shift has also taken place in relation to its sectoral orientation: an increasing part of the capital is directed to the secondary and tertiary sectors of social production.
4. Do not forget that the international movement of labor resources with its positive and negative consequences is of great importance. Among the latter - ϶ᴛᴏ, first of all, the "pumping of minds" to the highly developed countries of the world from developing and post-socialist countries. The migration of labor resources is regulated both by international law and interstate agreements, and by national legislation.
5. The highest level of internationalization of economic life is economic integration. It is worth noting that it goes through a number of stages, from the removal of customs barriers to the formation of economic unions with a single currency for the united countries.
LECTURE #8
in the discipline WORLD ECONOMY
Topic 8.
Lesson number 1. International labor movement
Teaching and educational goals:
1. To study the specifics of the international movement of labor.
2. To form a civic position, the skills to analyze the most important events in the world and Russia, to achieve the need for constant enrichment of knowledge.
Introduction.
Educational questions (main part):
1. International labor movement: essence, causes, main centers of labor migration.
2. Benefits and costs for countries from labor migration.
3. International Labor Organization (ILO).
Conclusion.
Literature:
a) Main
1. World economy: textbook / Ed. prof. A.S. Bulatov. - M.: Economist, 2003. - 734 p.
2. World economy and international economic relations: textbook / Ed. prof. A.S. Bulatova, N.N. Liventseva - M.: Master: INFRA-M, 2011. - 654 p.
2. World economy: tutorial/ A.G. Ivasenko, Ya.I. Nikonov. – M.: KNORUS, 2010. – 640 p.
3. Chebotarev N.F. World economy: textbook. - 2nd ed., add. – M.: Dashkov i K, 2008. – 332 p.
4. Avdokushin E. F. International economic relations; Textbook. Lawyer, 1999.– S. 19-60.
5. Radjabova Z.K. World economy: Textbook. - 2nd ed., Rev. – M.: INFRA-M, 2007. – 336 p.
6. International economic relations: textbook. / N. N. Liventsev [and others]; ed. N. N. Liventseva. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - M .: TK Velby, Publishing House Prospekt, 2008. - 656 p.
b) additional
1. World economy. Global trends for 100 years / ed. I. S. Koroleva. M.: Economist, 2003.
2. Yanova V.V. Economics: textbook. - M .: Publishing house "Exam", 2007. - 282 p.
Educational and material support
Educational and methodological complex on topic No. 8:
1. Text of the stock lecture.
2. Structural and logical scheme for studying the material of topic No. 8.
3. Outline of the lecture session No. 8.
4. TSO: PC, video projector.
5. Blackboard, chalk, pointer.
Lecture text
Introduction
In the second half of the 20th century, the development of the economy of most industrialized countries increasingly depended on the import of foreign labor. In the mid-1990s, in the seven leading countries of the world (USA, Canada, Japan, Germany, England, France, Italy), emigrants accounted for about 20% of total demand, they accounted for 25 to 40% of the labor force employed in labor-intensive industries .
The use of foreign labor has become necessary condition expanded reproduction of the world economy. By the beginning of the 21st century, the number of emigrants temporarily residing outside their countries will be more than 40 million people.
Educational questions (main part):
International labor movement: essence, causes, main centers of labor migration
A characteristic feature of the world economy is the steady increase in the scale of international migration, which has now become a permanent component of the world economy.
In a number of industrialized countries, entire sectors of the economy depend on foreign labor: in France - the automotive industry (by 1/3), construction (by 1/4); in Belgium, the mining industry (1/2); in Switzerland - construction (by 2/5), etc.
Population migration- This is the movement of people associated, as a rule, with a change of residence.
Subdivided into:
- irrevocable, in which there is a change of the country of residence;
- temporary, resettlement for some fairly long, but limited, often predetermined period;
- seasonal, for example, for harvesting agricultural products;
– external, outside the country (emigration and immigration);
- internal.
The functioning of the global labor market is manifested in the international migration of labor - emigration And immigration.
Immigration– entry of the economically active population into the country from outside
Emigration- departure of the able-bodied population from the country outside its borders.
Re-emigration return of emigrants to their homeland.
Migration balance- the difference between immigration from the country and emigration to the country.
International labor migration is the resettlement of the able-bodied population from one state to another for a period of more than a year, caused mainly by economic reasons.
According to UN classification permanent migrant workers persons arriving in the country in order to find paid employment for a period exceeding one year are considered.
At the beginning of the XX century. the total number of migrant workers reached an annual value of 50 million people.
In the world reproduction process, the international movement of labor resources performs a number of important social functions. It promotes:
international exchange of labor skills, experience and knowledge;
development of the creative potential of people;
· changes in the age and sex structure of the labor resources of countries;
· updating the quality of labor resources of national economies;
· acceleration of social and professional mobility of the world's population.
International movement of labor between industries world economy carried out in the form branch And professional movement.
International intersectoral labor movement
· an international cross-sectoral movement, in which employees who move to work in another country change their industry and profession;
· an international cross-sectoral movement, in which employees who move to work in another country change their industry, but do not change their profession.
International professional labor movement includes the following forms:
· international intracompany movement of workers associated with the activities of transnational companies;
· retraining of migrants when moving to another country for a new specialty within the former profession;
change in the professional qualifications of an employee when moving from one country to another (in developed countries - to a lower one, in developing countries - to a higher one);
mastery of a new profession by migrants.
The main directions of labor migration:
1. The movement of labor from developing to economically developed countries.
2. The movement of labor between developed countries.
3. Movement of labor between developing countries.
4. The movement of labor from developed countries to developing ones.
5. The movement of labor from the former socialist countries.
The consequences of international labor migration are manifold. They manifest themselves both in countries that export labor and in countries that import it, bringing certain benefits and losses to both sides, although, as analysis shows, there are more benefits in countries that import labor, and in exporting countries in general. the losses outweigh the gains. The world as a whole benefits because freedom to migrate allows people to move to countries where they can contribute more net income to world production.
Labor-hosting countries receive such benefits :
1) in a country that imports labor, especially skilled, the growth rate of the economy will increase: additional demand for goods and services of immigrants stimulates the growth of production and creates additional employment in the country of their residence;
2) the competitiveness of goods produced by the country increases as a result of lower production costs associated with a lower price of foreign labor and the ability to restrain growth wages local workers through increased competition in the labor market;
3) the host country benefits from taxes, the amount of which depends on the qualification and age structure of immigrants. Highly qualified specialists who speak the language of the host country immediately become large taxpayers;
4) a significant income is brought by the transfer of knowledge from the country of emigration. When importing skilled workers and scientific personnel, the host country saves on education and vocational training. Thus, in the USA there are 230 members of the National Academy of Sciences, 33% of Nobel Prize winners are immigrants;
5) foreign workers are often seen as a kind of shock absorber in case of rising unemployment: they can be fired in the first place;
6) emigrants improve the demographic picture of developed countries that suffer from an aging population. In Germany, France, Sweden, 10% of all newborns are born in immigrant families. In Switzerland - 24%, in Luxembourg - 38%.
TO negative consequences generated by migration include: social conflicts, exacerbation of interethnic problems, crime, etc. All this is used by the governments of the host countries as arguments in favor of a policy of restricting immigration, selecting immigrants who are allowed into the country.
Labor exporting countries also receive certain benefits:
1) a decrease in the unemployment rate, and, as a consequence, a decrease in social tension in the country;
2) free training of the labor force in new professional skills, introduction to advanced technology, organization, etc.
3) receiving income as a result of emigrants' remittances.
These remittances are included in the "Private remittances" item of the balance of payments and for many countries constitute a significant part of foreign exchange earnings. Upon returning to their homeland, migrants bring with them valuables and savings in an amount approximately equal to the amount of their remittances.
Calculations by foreign experts show that the role of private transfers is especially important for countries with an average level of development. In these countries, income from the export of labor in some years exceeds income from other types of foreign economic activity. According to the IMF, the average rate of return on the export of goods is 20%, services - 50%, and from the export of labor is much higher. For example, remittances to Pakistan from workers abroad are 5 times higher than receipts from exports of goods and services. In Yemen, remittances from emigrants in some years were 30 times higher than receipts from the export of goods and services. At the beginning of the 1990s, about 40 countries had income from migrants of at least $100 million, and 10 countries - about $1 billion.
On the other hand, these countries had the following consequences of labor export: 1) reduction in tax revenues due to a decrease in the number of taxpayers; 2) constant migration means that there is an outflow of qualified, enterprising workers, the so-called "brain drain", which leads to a slowdown in the growth of the scientific, technical and cultural level of the country. According to experts, these losses in the mid-90s amounted to about 73 billion dollars.
The state can counteract the negative consequences of migration in the following ways:
- prohibition of migration;
- the introduction of a tax on "brain drain" in order to compensate for public investment in emigrants;
- the creation by the state of highly profitable industries that export labor. For example, Asian NIEs have created a powerful, highly profitable sector of the economy - the export of labor, which is engaged in the preparation and recruitment of workers with the necessary specialties for work abroad. Transfers of money to their homeland by exported workers bring significant income to the state. For example, export workers in South Korea, in accordance with applicable law, are required to send 80% of their earnings to their homeland in hard currency through national banks.
The movement of labor is closely related to the movement of capital and is largely due to its movements. Migration of the population has been known since ancient times, historically it was the first form of existence of the IEO.
Migration (from Latin “I pass”, “I move”)- this is the movement of people across the borders of certain territories, usually associated with a change of residence.
International migration exists in various forms: labor, family, recreational, tourist. Migration is voluntary. But history knows the facts of forced migration (delivery of black slaves to the American continent).
Types of migration:
1) Emigration is the departure of citizens from their country, immigration is the entry of citizens of another state into the territory of this country;
2) External migration - population migration between countries, internal migration - migration within national borders;
3) Labor migration. The international labor market exists in the form of labor migration, which is a form of export and import of labor.
All movements of the labor force are made up of the flows of departures (emigration) and arrivals (immigration). The difference between these streams gives volume of net migration, and their sum is volume of gross migration.
According to the UN classification, permanent migrant workers persons arriving in the country of entry in order to find paid employment for a period not exceeding one year are considered.
The reasons for labor migration are economic, cultural, environmental, political, national, religious, racial, psychological, humanitarian, legal factors.
Socio-economic reasons for labor migration:
1. Uneven economic development of different countries; their stay in different phases of the economic cycle.
2. Different income levels in different countries.
3. A significant difference in unemployment rates in countries.
4. The specifics of the formation of labor resources in economically backward countries (overcrowding, unemployment, low labor productivity).
5. Relative cheapness of labor services in underdeveloped countries.
Allocate the following types labor migration:
1. Irrevocable, in which migrants leave for permanent residence in the host country;
2. Temporary-permanent, when migration is limited by the period of stay in the country of entry from 1 to 6 years;
3. Seasonal migration, which is associated with short-term (within a year) entry to work in those sectors of the economy that are seasonal (agriculture and services);
4. Pendulum (shuttle, border) - daily moving from one country to another and back (these people are called frontaliers);
5. Illegal - illegal entry into the country in search of work or arrival in it on legal grounds (tourists, by invitation) with subsequent illegal employment;
6. "Brain drain" is a one-sided migration of scientific and technical personnel within the framework of the world economy to predominantly industrialized countries, leading to the loss of qualified specialists from donor countries (scientists, "stars" of sports).
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The concept and content of international labor migration of labor force
Labor is one of the main factors of production. Economic growth in a generalized form is characterized by the magnitude of the change in two indicators - an increase in the population and an increase in available resources. The size and structure of the population of the countries of the world, material security, the development of science, education, culture, society, labor reserves and migration - these (and not only these) issues are directly related to the economic growth of countries and the world economy as a whole. Population growth and the dynamics of the number of employees, the quality of their labor functions and folding labor Relations for centuries served as the main source of economic growth and development of the countries of the world.
Concept, essence. Factors of production, including labor, have the ability to move internationally and thus, to a certain extent, can replace international trade relations. From the material discussed in this chapter, it follows that many important aspects of international labor migration and its consequences are similar to the effects of countries' foreign trade. The labor force moves from countries where there is a clear surplus of it to those countries where there is a clear shortage of it. Such relocation undoubtedly increases the efficiency of the national economy, which uses foreign workers and their labor. This additional labor force expands the output of goods for the world market and at the same time causes the effect of income redistribution, which affects the interests of certain groups of the population.
International cooperation based on the international division of labor is carried out in two main forms:
- 1) commodity exchange;
- 2) labor migration.
From the point of view of conceptual understanding of the problem, there is "internal" migration of the labor force, which occurs within the country, between its different regions, and "external" - between two or (and) a large number of countries. Sometimes political emigration is transformed into labor migration, as political emigrants find employment, turning into migrant workers; This is a kind of forced external emigration.
International labor migration – This is the migration of the population of working age from one state to another for a period of more than a year, caused by economic reasons (the intention of employment).
Emigration– departure of the able-bodied population from the given country to other countries; immigration- Entry of the able-bodied population into the country from other countries. "Brain drain"is the international migration of highly qualified specialists.
Re-emigration return of emigrants to their homeland for permanent residence.
Labor migration is a phenomenon that existed even in very distant times. Therefore, it is important to know in what forms and types this phenomenon was observed in previous periods. The forms of social mobility are changeable, but this phenomenon itself is organically inherent in human societies.
According to Pitirim Sorokin, social mobility is the natural state of society. It implies not only social movements of individuals, groups, but also social objects - everything that mankind has created in the course of its activity. Sorokin opposed the theory of classes and for the first time introduced the concept of "economic stratification", implying that stable social groups-societies according to their income level and occupation. At the same time, he concludes that the main structural groups, changing only the name, continue to exist throughout the life of all known civilizations, from the very beginning. ancient times until now in all systems of states: democratic, communist, dictatorial, etc. "And if, for a moment, some forms of stratification are destroyed, they reappear in an old or modified form and are often created by the hands of the equalizers themselves." Wars and other social conflicts inflict the most powerful blows on these stratification groups, explosively giving rise to flows of refugees. As a result, the age-old traditions of the people quickly break down, the processes of degradation of the structure of the ethnos are formed, and new non-civilizational conflicts arise (Fig. 13.1).
Rice. 13.1.
On fig. 13.1 presents a rather complex structure of modern migration; the concepts presented here contain the motivational reasons for a whole classification group of migrations that are directly or indirectly related to labor migrations.
Common reasons for migrations. The history of mankind knows many major territorial movements, one of which is called the great migration of peoples. In the early stages, the population was removed from traditional places habitation under the influence of a complex of causes, when natural circumstances played a decisive role. Later, a period of endless wars began, when the main form of remuneration for the winners was captured people, destined for sale into slavery. Further, demographic and economic reasons began to play the main role, and in Newest time Mostly economic reasons. A deviation from this rule were two periods of world wars - 1914-1918. and 1939-1945, when tens of millions of people were displaced from one country to another, and the consequences of such movements were no less impressive than in the era of the great migration. At the end of the XX century. in connection with the increasing regional conflicts, regional-international forced migration appeared, which is not related to job searches (this question arises later, when the refugee, having made sure that he is safe and sound, begins to look for shelter and food). These are, for example, migrants from Vietnam, Kampuchea, Chile, Cuba, Haiti, Greece (after the coup of the "black colonels" in the 1950s-1970s), as well as US intellectuals during the time of the fascist Senator McCarthy (late 1940s - early 1950s), etc. – all of them were forced to flee their country of persecution and repression. The military conflicts in Africa and Latin America that took place in the 1960s–1990s resulted in millions of refugees. The ethnic war in the former Yugoslavia, and then the bombing of Serbia by NATO armed forces, became a huge tragedy for millions of people, many hundreds of thousands of them were forced to flee their homeland.
Like a fire in a forest, local conflicts began to flare up, turning into hostilities throughout the USSR (Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, the Baltic States, Moldova, South Ossetia, Ingushetia and North Ossetia, Abkhazia, and finally Chechnya). Military conflicts and the consequences of the collapse of the USSR directly contributed to the fact that about 10 million people became refugees.
New flows of refugees are generated by the NATO operation in Libya.
It should be noted that the basis of post-war international migrations of labor resources are actually economic reasons, and not only the indicated military-political conflicts. International labor migration has brought about major changes in both recipient and donor countries. The changes are multifaceted, so they attract the attention of not only economists, but also sociologists, demographers, and so on.
International migration has become relevant for all countries, peoples and continents. The UN defines migration as "any movement of people across national borders with a change of place of residence for a period of more than 12 months." According to official UN data, in 1994 the number of refugees amounted to more than 24 million people (in 1980 - less than 10 million). In 2010, the number of migrants in the world amounted to about 214 million people; apparently not by chance in the 20th century. called the "age of refugees".
Immigrants from developing countries. Unemployment, low living standards, the desire to escape poverty - these are the main motives for immigration from developing countries to developed regions of the world. Along with the pronounced economic reasons for the mobility of the population, political, social and demographic factors arose and intensified, which in one way or another contributed to the change of residence for a certain time or forever. The degree of their impact varied in developing countries, but sometimes it was very significant.
The mobility of the population should be more associated not so much with density, but rather with its property polarization and the rapid growth in the number of inhabitants of developing countries. A common feature of the poor countries of Asia and Africa, and to a lesser extent the countries of Latin America, is high population growth, which affects all aspects of life in these countries. It is known that from 1950 to 2005 the population of Asia increased by 1.8 billion people, i.e. much larger than the current population of all economically developed countries of the world.
As a result of the population explosion in almost all countries of Asia and Africa, population density has increased markedly and, more importantly, the amount of cultivated area per rural family has decreased. For example, in India for 1950-1995. the size of the land plot has decreased by three times, and in Pakistan since independence - by 2.7 times; in Turkey, per capita rural population in 1950 accounted for 0.7 hectares of cultivated land, in 1960 as a result of the development of previously unused land - 0.8 hectares, then this figure systematically decreased and by 1995 amounted to less than 0.4 hectares .
As the population grows, so does the need for food, housing, cultivated land, water, energy, and jobs. The objective possibilities of such provision of the population are declining. All this gives grounds to assert that the rapid growth of the population of countries is one of the most important reasons for emigration in poor countries. The causes and consequences of the international movement of labor resources are ambiguous, they are constantly studied by specialists in relation to each country (or group of similar countries).
Poverty – the main reason for labor migration. The main reasons for labor migration (with all the importance of other components that we mentioned) is the search for a job that would give an opportunity for a decent life for a person (and his family, if any). In developed countries, there is a certain tendency among specialists to change the situation, country, work, moving, for example, from the UK to the USA, Canada or Australia - or vice versa. But these motives are not the basis of modern labor migration as the most important socio-economic and international phenomenon. The basis of this phenomenon is poverty, so typical for most countries of the world, which are economically underdeveloped countries, where, firstly, the unemployment rate is high, and secondly, even having a job does not always satisfy a person due to poor conditions or low wages.
Therefore, the main source of origin of modern labor migration is economically underdeveloped countries. Moreover, the picture is quite complex. For example, many scientists, analysts, and highly skilled workers leave Russia for Western European countries in search of better conditions life and work. But, in turn, migrants from the former Soviet republics, where these conditions are much worse, rush to Russia in droves. This situation is typical for a whole group of countries, including those in transition, which are developing quite successfully, but still lag far behind the group of developed countries in terms of social parameters.
As we found out, the main reason that people leave the country in search of work is the search for a livelihood. The uneven socio-economic development led to an increase in per capita national income, first in industrial states, and then in oil-producing states (more precisely, exporting oil in large volumes), which gave rise to powerful internal shifts in traditional societies, contributing to their modernization and the formation of motives for the movement of some people. Of course, national income is also increasing in developing countries, but in many of them it is growing slowly, in contrast to the gap in per capita income levels between the rich and the poor. A low standard of living, sometimes hopeless poverty, is expressed in a low level of consumption, primarily of food, not to mention durable goods. Another group of reasons for migration is predominantly social in nature. The underdevelopment of the local education system, the network of health care institutions, the lack of confidence in tomorrow, dissatisfaction with the primitive way of life - all this contributes to the formation of emigration capital, causes a desire to leave for those countries where living conditions are better. In some cases, one can distinguish specific forms labor migrations. These include, for example, the movement of young Pakistanis to Oman, where they serve for hire in the army of the Sultan. Another, relatively rare, form can be considered moving for the purpose of marriage. For example, in Germany until recently there were about 500 marriage agencies who supplied meek and obedient brides from Southeast Asia for wealthy men. In conditions of low wages, a weak industrial base, and the impossibility of using the acquired knowledge in the country, many highly qualified specialists in developing and new capitalist countries also prefer to leave their countries. Thus, a migration flow was formed in the field of "brain drain" - the departure from the country of highly qualified national personnel and young promising scientists.
Another reason is the exceptional mobility (or elasticity) of foreign workers, which manifests itself mainly in two cases:
- 1) when moving from unpromising industries to new, more promising ones. In particular, in all industrial and in many oil-producing states, immigrants worked mainly in the service sector;
- 2) when faced with the threat of unemployment or deportation, they quickly moved from one country to another, especially since immigrants, having lost their jobs, did not receive unemployment benefits in Western countries until the mid-1980s, and in oil-producing countries even now .
To a certain extent, immigrants contribute to the reduction of unemployment: foreign workers, consuming various goods and services, thereby increase demand. The expansion of production requires additional employment, including through both foreign and domestic labor. As a result, thanks to the labor of immigrants, employment has steadily increased in all recipient countries, while maintaining stable unemployment of both indigenous people and migrants.
Krugman-Obstfeld plot. Based on the general trends in international labor migration (wage equalization, growth in world production, contradictory impact on different groups population) as a factor in the redistribution of world labor resources, Π. R. Krugman and M. Obstfeld built a graph illustrating the causes and consequences of labor mobility (mobility) (Fig. 13.2).
Researchers of issues of international labor migration, as a rule, refer to the ongoing process of leveling (leveling) the wage levels of the emigrant country and the immigrant country. This conclusion is correct only when analyzing labor migration within the group of developed countries of the world and is in no way confirmed by the facts when it comes to labor migration flows "developing countries - developed countries", if we do not mean the situation in a relatively small group of Arab oil-producing countries, which, however, does not affect the emerging general trends.
The effect of immigration. Clearly, migration flows have a profound and multidimensional impact on the livelihoods of host societies. We note the following areas of influence:
The effect of immigration is largely determined by its scale. According to the UN, the number of US migrants reaches 35 million, followed by: Russia -
Rice. 13.2.
- 13 million, Germany - 7.3, France - 6.2, Canada - 5.8, Australia - 4.7 million : in Australia - 24%, Switzerland - 19, Canada - 17, USA - 11%;
- along with purely quantitative parameters, structural indicators of migration flows are also important, in particular ratio of different categories of migrants. With the exception of a small group of countries (Switzerland, Australia, Portugal and the UK), the share of economic migrants purposefully accepted in accordance with the needs of the economy and the social sphere in total migration flows is small. The vast majority of migrants are still accepted for humanitarian rather than economic reasons. Through family reunification channels, 70-80% of newcomers arrive in the USA, Sweden, and Denmark. Refugees account for about 20% of foreigners living in Norway, France and Sweden. The share of immigrants in Belgium and the Netherlands is even more significant. Such migrants increase the number of dependents and create an additional burden on society;
- plays an increasingly important role in modern times level of education and professional qualifications migrants. As a rule, the level of education of immigrants is generally lower than that of local residents. However, in Canada and some countries in southern and central Europe, Lately reverse trends are observed: in Canada in 2000–2005. almost 26% of immigrants aged 25–44 had a tertiary education, compared to 20% of natives of the same age. Among newly arrived workers, their share is even higher. In Canada, among immigrants admitted in 2001-2004. permanent residence under the skilled worker program, 46% had a tertiary education, including 15% with at least a master's degree. At the same time, the professional and qualification composition of immigrants is highly polarized, reflecting the current demand for foreign labor and the existence of special programs that, on the one hand, encourage the influx of certain categories of highly qualified specialists, and, on the other hand, provide for their needs in temporary, including seasonal , unskilled workers for agriculture, tourism business etc. In recent years, the share of engineers, scientists and managers in the EU accounted for about 40% of the newly arrived foreign economically active population, in the US - about 35%. High-skilled migrants usually bring higher economic returns, more easily go through the process of socio-economic integration and more quickly assimilate the standards of social behavior of the local population, while the reception of low-skilled migrants can have negative socio-political consequences;
- relevant question about national composition immigration. About a third of immigrants in Germany are Turks, in France - Moroccans and Algerians, in the USA - Mexicans. The increase in the number of alien ethnic alien population, the formation of ethnic enclaves, the transformation of host societies into multicultural ones sharpen the problems of interethnic relations in them, which is accompanied by an increase in xenophobia and helps to strengthen the position of extremist forces;
- the destructive effect of immigration is largely determined by illegal character most of its streams. The number of illegal immigrants reaches, according to some estimates, in European countries from 2.5 to 7 million, in the USA - up to 9-10 million. of all terrorism, worsening of the criminogenic, sanitary and epidemiological situation, etc.
Why migrants are needed ? The reduction and aging of the population, the change in the proportions between its able-bodied and disabled parts are now characteristic of many developed countries. It is expected that in the next 50 years the population of the EU will decrease by about 12%. With increasing life expectancy, one in six people in the EU is now over 65, and by 2050 it will be one in four (perhaps even three), with only 10% of the population aged 65-69 still working. As a result, the economically active population is shrinking. Currently, immigration provides more than half of the demographic growth in the developed countries of the world, and about 90% in Europe. In order to maintain the economically active population in 2000-2050, according to UN forecasts, the EU countries need to receive 1.4 million people annually. In addition, immigration also has a secondary impact on the demographic situation in host countries, due to higher birth rates in many immigrant families, especially in the first years after resettlement. Accordingly, in many developed countries there is an increase in the share of foreigners in the workforce: in Australia it is 24.6%, in Switzerland - 21.8, Canada - 19.9, USA - 15.3%.
The socio-professional component of the labor force is also significantly influenced by immigration. In the context of acute structural professional-sectoral and territorial disproportions in the labor market, it is far from unambiguous. In Western countries, there are both chronic and recurring temporary and seasonal shortages of unskilled personnel needed to perform the hard, dirty, dangerous and low-paid jobs that the locals refuse. For example, in Belgium, immigrants make up half of all miners, in Switzerland - 40% of construction workers, in the USA - 70% of those employed in the agricultural sector.
At the same time, there is a shortage of wage labor in the groups of highly qualified technical specialists and skilled mid-level workers. For example, in Australia there is a shortage of specialists in the field information technologies for 2001–2006 was estimated at 27-35 thousand people.
About 1.5 million foreign-born scientists and engineers (including naturalized migrants) currently work in the US, while there are about 2 million foreign scientists, engineers, managers and technicians in the EU. The highest share of foreigners among highly qualified specialists is observed in the traditional countries of emigration: Australia (25%), Canada (18%) and the USA (9%), which for many decades have been purposefully pursuing a policy of attracting the world's best minds.
The admission of foreign students is also considered as an important channel for replenishing human resources in the scientific and technical field. 5 million students are now studying in developed countries, about a third of them are in the United States. In the context of a decrease in the number of domestic students studying natural and technical disciplines, these countries are showing an increasing interest in foreign students of this profile who complete their studies on their territory, and are making changes to their migration policy to facilitate obtaining work visas for such graduates. In Canada, for example, 36% of foreign students take a course in these disciplines, and in the US, while the share of foreigners among those who received PhD degrees was 22%, in engineering, mathematics and information technology, it exceeded 40%.
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