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Target: Show the features of the development of scientific and technological revolution, its characteristic features and components.
Teaching and educational tasks:
- Form the concept of scientific and technological revolution; introduce the features and parts of the NTR.
- To form the ability to listen and highlight the main thing in the content, schematically draw up a summary.
- Show the scale of scientific and technological achievements of mankind.
Lesson type: learning new material, lesson-lecture.
Lesson steps:
- Distribute the lecture scheme, consisting of blocks and their parts, placed on an A4 sheet, to distribute to students. During the lesson, students will be able to make notes on it.
- The same scheme is placed on the board. In the course of the lecture, we will return to it, marking what has already been completed.
- During the lesson, students get acquainted with the key words-terms:
- Geoinformatics;
- Geoinformation systems.
- Listening to a lecture is accompanied by a detailed summary.
- At the end of the lesson, students formulate brief conclusions.
Equipment: textbooks, wall political map world", maps of the atlas, Handout, computer, projector, screen, presentation.
During the classes
I. Organization of the class.
II. Learning new material.
Introduction to the topic.(Slide 1)
Definition of goals.
Today we must find out the characteristic features and components of the scientific and technological revolution, to show that the scientific and technological revolution is a single complex system.
Epigraph. (Slide 2)
Acquaintance of students with the stages of the lesson and with the task for the lesson. (Slide 3)
Lecture plan: (Slide 4)
- Scientific and technological revolution
- Characteristic features of NTR.
- Components of NTR.
- The concept of geographic information systems.
1. Work with the concept of scientific and technological revolution. (Slides 5-6)
Teacher: When studying this topic, we have to turn to one of the most significant, global processes of development of the entire modern world - the scientific and technological revolution.
The entire history of the development of human society is inextricably linked with scientific and technological progress. But there are times when rapid and profound changes occur. productive forces humanity.
Such was the period of industrial revolutions in the XVIII-XIX centuries. in a number of countries of the world, when machine labor replaced manual labor. In the 19th century, the steam engine was invented in England, a huge role in the development industrial production the invention of the conveyor played. It was first used in the United States in the manufacture of automobiles.
The steam engine became the "primary" cell of the industrial revolution in the century before last, and the computer became the "primary" cell of modern scientific and technological revolution. Modern scientific and technological revolution began in the middle of the 20th century. In all countries, it manifests itself in different ways, and therefore it can be said that it is far from being completed. But a new one is ripening in the world industrial Revolution. What it will be - the future will show.
Conversation with the class
Questions:
- The word "revolution" in various dictionaries has the following interpretation. (Students quote the definition of "revolution" from different dictionaries)
- What unites all these definitions?
- How would you define NTR?
- What is the difference between the concepts of scientific and technological progress and scientific and technological progress?
Answer:
The task: Analyze the two formulations, compare them and find the main difference between the two phenomena?
Answer:
Modern science has become an industry of discovery, a powerful stimulus for the development of technology.
2. Characteristic features of scientific and technological revolution. (Slide 7)
1) Universality, inclusiveness. (Slides 8-10)
Scientific and technological revolution has affected all countries of the world and all spheres of the geographical shell, outer space. Scientific and technological revolution transforms all branches of production, the nature of labor, life, culture, and the psychology of people. Scientific and technological revolution symbols: rocket, TV set, computer, etc.
The inclusiveness of scientific and technological revolution can be characterized geographically, since thanks to scientific and technological revolution, the words satellite, atom, robot appeared in our vocabulary.
Question: Name the new appliances that have appeared in your home over the past 10 years. What technique does your grandmother, mother, not know how to use?
2) Acceleration of scientific and technological transformations. (Slide 11)
It is expressed in a sharp reduction in the time between a scientific discovery and its implementation in production. Moral wear and tear occurs earlier than physical wear and tear, therefore, for some classes, car repair makes no sense (for example: computers, video cameras, TVs, etc.)
Working with the textbook
The task:
- Find an example in the additional text (p. 103) that would confirm this feature of NTR.
- Analyze the table and draw conclusions.
3) Increasing requirements for the skill level of labor resources. (Slide 12)
In all spheres of human activity, the share of mental labor has increased, its intellectualization has taken place.
In the era of scientific and technological revolution, workers with higher education are in demand, and the share of knowledge workers has increased. This also applies to you. After graduating from high school, you will find it easier to find an interesting and well-paid job.
4) Military-technical revolution. (Slide 13)
It originated during the Second World War. Its beginning was heralded by the explosion of the atomic bomb in Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, after which an arms race began between the two powerful powers of the USA and the USSR. Throughout the entire period of the Cold War, scientific and technological revolution was focused on using the latest achievements of scientific and technical thought for military purposes. But after the commissioning of the first nuclear power plant and the launch of the first artificial Earth satellite, many countries are doing everything to direct the scientific and technological revolution to achieve peaceful goals.
3. Components of scientific and technological revolution.(Slide 14)
Scientific and technological revolution is a single complex system, the parts of which closely interact with each other.
1) Science and science intensity . (Slides 15-17)
Science in the era of scientific and technological revolution has become a complex body of knowledge. Science is both a complex of knowledge and a special sphere of human activity. For many countries, the development of science is task No. 1.
There are 5 to 6 million scientific workers in the world. At the same time, the USA, Germany, Japan, France and Great Britain account for more than 80% of scientific employees, more than 80% of all investments in science, almost all inventions, patents, licenses and Nobel Prizes awarded.
- IN developed countries in terms of the number of scientists and engineers they occupy: 1st place - the USA, 2nd place - Japan, countries Western Europe(Russia is included in this group).
The connection between science and production is especially growing, which is becoming more and more knowledge-intensive(Science intensity is measured by the level (shares) of expenditures on Scientific research and development in the total cost of production of a particular product).
However, the differences between developed and developing countries in the field of science are especially large:
- Spending on science in developed countries is 2-3% of GDP;
- In developing countries, spending on science on average does not exceed 0.5% of GDP.
2) Technique and technology. (Slide 18)
Technique and technology embody scientific knowledge and discoveries.
The purpose of new technologies is to increase the environmental activity of production, labor productivity, resource saving and nature protection.
Germany and the USA stand out for the production of environmental protection equipment and the introduction of the latest environmental technologies. In addition to the fact that these countries are leaders in the production and use of environmental technologies, Germany is also the main country that supplies them to the world market.
Two ways of developing technology technology in the conditions of modern scientific and technological revolution:
- evolutionary path
- revolutionary path
(Slide 19)
a) Evolutionary path (Further improvement of engineering and technology)
(Slide 20)
Question for the class: Give examples of the evolutionary path of development of engineering and technology.
Answer:
Improving the technology that was produced at the beginningXXcentury - cars, aircraft, machine tools, blast furnaces, ships.
For example, in the early 50s, the largest sea tanker could hold up to 50 thousand tons of oil, in the 60s - 100, 200, 300 thousand tons, in the 70s. tankers with a carrying capacity of over 500 thousand tons appeared. The largest offshore tankers were built in Japan and France.
However, such megalomania does not always justify itself, since not all seaports can accept and serve such a large transport. After all, the length of the vessel reaches 480 m, the width is about 63 m, such a tanker has a draft with a load of up to 30 meters. The propeller is equal to the height of a three-story house, the deck occupies 2.5 hectares)
b) Revolutionary path (Transition to a fundamentally new technique and technology).
It finds its most striking expression in the production of electronic equipment. If earlier they talked about the “age of textiles”, “the age of the car”, now they are talking about the “age of electronics”.
The breakthrough to new technologies is also of great importance. "Second wave" of scientific and technological revolution, which manifested itself in the 70s. called the microelectronic revolution, because. the invention of the microprocessor in the history of mankind can be compared with the invention of the wheel, steam engine or electricity. (Slides 21-26)
The task: Analyze the text of the textbook on p. 94, as well as additional material on p. 115.
Output(students do it themselves): The revolutionary path is the main path in the development of engineering and technology in the era of scientific and technological revolution.
3) Production: six main areas of development.(Slides 27-29)
Question: What are the main directions of development of production. (Students have a handout that can be used to answer the question posed by the teacher)
a) Electronization means the saturation of all areas of human activity with the means of EWT. The electronics industry is the brainchild of scientific and technological revolution.
For example:
- in education - computerization of schools, their connection to the Internet;
- in medicine - ultrasound, computed tomography, development of microsurgery, computed radiography;
- in communication - cell phones.
The electronic industry is in the fullest sense the brainchild of scientific and technological revolution. It will largely determine the entire course of scientific and technological revolution.
This branch has received the greatest development in the USA, Japan, Germany, NIS of Asia.
b) Integrated automation. (Slides 30-34)
It began in the 1950s with the advent of computers. A new round of development occurred in the 70s of the XX century, and it is associated with the advent of microprocessors and microcomputers. Robotics is developing rapidly, Japan has achieved particular success in this area. There are 800 robots for every 10,000 auto workers in the country, compared to 300 in the US. The scope of robots today is limitless.
c) Energy economy restructuring. (Slides 35-37)
The restructuring of the energy sector is associated with the ever-growing needs of the countries of the world for electricity. Existing traditional power plants can no longer cope with the load. Therefore, the greatest attention in the world is paid to the construction of nuclear power plants.
By the beginning of the 21st century, more than 450 nuclear power units were in operation in the world. Leading countries: USA, France, Japan, Germany, Russia, Ukraine. However, in recent years, due to the difficulties of using nuclear power plants, many countries are afraid of environmental consequences, and the developed countries of the world have paid attention to alternative energy.
d) Production of new materials. (Slides 38, 39)
The requirements of modern production for ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, as well as for chemical industry, which produces synthetic polymers, is steadily increasing. But it brought to life fundamentally new composite, semiconductor, metal-ceramic materials. The chemical industry is mastering the production of optical fibers.
A special role in the production of new materials is assigned to the "metals of the XX century": beryllium, lithium, titanium. Titanium is currently the No. 1 metal for the aerospace industry, nuclear shipbuilding, as it is a light and refractory metal.
e) Accelerated development of biotechnology. (Slides 40-42)
The direction arose in the 70s and is developing at a faster pace. Biotechnology uses traditional knowledge and modern technology to modify the genetic material of plants, animals and microbes to create new products.
Biotechnology contributes significant contribution in improving health care, increasing food production, reforestation, increasing productivity in industry, disinfecting water, cleaning up hazardous waste.
The results of biotechnology can already be seen. This includes the creation of clones and modified products. More and more often we hear about the discoveries of medical scientists in the field of genetic engineering.
Of great importance are biotechnological programs that are used in the extraction of mineral resources. Biotechnologies are developing especially successfully in the USA, Japan, Germany, and France.
f) Cosmization. (Slide 43)
The development of astronautics has led to the emergence of another new science-intensive industry - the aerospace industry. The use of space only for military purposes ended with the Cold War.
Space is increasingly becoming a place where the countries of the world cooperate. It is used to explore the Earth, in fishing, in agriculture, to obtain new materials in a vacuum.
It was space images that confirmed Wegener's theory "On the movement of lithospheric plates." The results of space research have a huge impact on the development of fundamental sciences.
4) Management: on the way to a high information culture. (Slide 44)
The current stage of scientific and technological revolution is characterized by new requirements for management modern production. It is incredibly complicated and requires special training.
For example: in the implementation of space programs, such as landing a lunar rover on the moon, research and landing of descent vehicles on planets solar system, landing a man on the moon, sometimes several tens of thousands of different companies are tied up, which must work in a coordinated mode.
Only people who are fluent in the science of management can manage such programs. At the end of the 20th century, a special science of management arose - cybernetics . At the same time, it is the science of information.
The information flow is growing every day. That is why the transition from paper to machine information is so important. New specialties appeared that did not exist before: a programmer, a computer operator, and others.
We live in an era of "information explosion". Nowadays, there is already a global information space. The Internet plays a big role in its creation.
This is a real telecommunications "web" that has enveloped the whole world. The use of the Internet is in full swing in education. She did not bypass the geographical science, which included a new direction - geographic informatics .
4. Geoinformatics contributed to the creation of geographic information systems.
(GIS is a complex of interconnected means of obtaining, storing, processing, selecting data and issuing geographic information.)
Geoinformatics is one of the main directions of combining geographical science with achievements modern stage NTR.
III. Lesson summary:
1) Checking the schematic outline.
2) Fixing:
Assignment on the topic of scientific and technological revolution: Determine the place of the following provisions in the table:
- Production of new materials.
- Complex automation.
- Restructuring of the energy sector.
- Accelerated development of biotechnology.
- Acceleration of scientific and technological transformations.
- Cosmization.
- Increasing qualification requirements.
- The birth of scientific and technological revolution as a military-technical revolution.
- Versatility and inclusiveness.
- Electronization.
There should be time for questions at the end of the lecture. Questions received at the lecture must be recorded, collected, systematized and studied.
IV. Homework
- Topic 4, §1 in V.P. Maksakovskiy "Economic and social geography of the world"
- Prepare presentations on topics:
- "Using the achievements of scientific and technological revolution in geography",
- "The development of biotechnology in modern world”, “Space and scientific and technological revolution”
Interesting Facts
In the first half of the 20th century, the volume of scientific information doubled every 50 years, in the middle of the century - 10 years, in the 70s-80s - 5-7 years, in the 21st century - 3-5 years.
In 1900, 10 thousand magazines were published all over the world, and at the beginning of the 21st century - more than 1 million.
In geography alone, 700 journals are published today and 10,000 book titles are published a year.
And in total, 800 thousand titles of books and brochures are published annually in the world with a total circulation of more than 16 billion copies.
The modern scientific and technological revolution has entailed fundamental changes in human society, in production, in the interaction of society with the environment.
However, it should be noted that scientific and technological revolution is developing most successfully in the developed countries of the world, while most countries in Africa, Oceania, some countries of Asia and Latin America are still far from developing the achievements of scientific and technological revolution in their country.
Literature
- Gladky Yu.N., Lavrov S.B. Economic and social geography of the world. – M.: Enlightenment, 2006.
- Gladky Yu.N., Lavrov S.B. Global geography. – M.: Enlightenment, 2001.
- Maksakovskiy V.P. Toolkit"Economic and social geography of the world" - M .: Education, 2006.
- Maksakovskiy V.P. New in the world. Figures and facts. - M .: Bustard, 1999
Scientific and technological progress is a continuous process of introducing new equipment and technology, organizing production and labor based on the achievements of scientific knowledge. As a result of scientific and technical progress, all elements of the productive forces develop and improve: means and objects of labor, work force, technology, organization and production management.
Culture is a way of doing things public man and the result of this activity, characterizing the qualitative state of a certain stage of social progress.
The idea of a conflict between technical and cultural progress has been and is being expressed by many philosophers. There is a point of view that under the influence of technological progress, the death of culture will come, it will submit to technology and collapse, die. That technological progress has given rise to a cultural regression: painting has been replaced by photographs, bacchanalia is in fashion, polygamy, belts, bracelets and necklaces have replaced clothes, a complete fall of all arts and poetry, instead of music - waves of meaningless tones and sounds without passion and expression, melodies have disappeared, and all that which does not lead to practical, ordinary, permanent benefit is despised. Other main cause of social disasters modern society see in the ever-increasing disproportion between the level of development of technology and morality.
There is also a statement about the existence of two cultures between which there is no understanding, I understand technology as an element of culture and they are separated by a wall of misunderstanding.
A number of scientists oppose the division of a single human culture into two segments. Explaining this by the fact that scientists in their activities proceed not only from their scientific principles, but also from the values of humanism. Humanitarians, in turn, enjoy using technology.
Many Western philosophers of technology believe that culture is essentially one and that this unity is based on creative material and spiritual activity. What is the connection between technology and culture? First of all, technology is the most important cultural value. The sphere of culture is not limited to the classical values of art, ethics, science. In addition to the spiritual, there is a material part of culture, which includes technology as an activity and its means, embodying human knowledge. Progress technical means, the acquisition of skills and abilities to use them, their improvement are the most important factor in the development and functioning of culture. A modern cultured person must be able to use many technical means.
Technology plays a huge role in this development of human culture. Of course, other cultural values are also important, for example, fiction or science. But society in its daily hectic life does not deal with scientific achievements, but with their technical implementation.
The connection between art and technology is also realized through the technique of art itself. The impact of technology on art is organically accompanied by the impact of art on the design, construction and operation of technology. The relationship between the design solution and the aesthetic properties of a technical object existed before, manifesting itself in different ways in various types technology and art forms. So, in architecture, excessive material has always caused the impression of excessive heaviness, and the lack of material has been associated with instability, unreliability and caused negative emotions. here design, aesthetic and functional qualities were connected together.
In the conditions of modern scientific and technological progress, the connection between the utilitarian design and aesthetic qualities of the created technology is unusually enhanced and realized in design, which has taken shape as an independent form of creative activity and includes both the theoretical part - production (or technical) aesthetics, and the practical part - artistic design. . It is quite natural that the creation of technical means that meet the basic requirement of design - the relationship between function, design and content of products - is in principle incompatible with imperfect technology, requires a high production culture and improves the quality of products. So design acts as a stimulator of technical progress, there is Feedback art with technology.
Scientific and technological progress and society in the 19th century Prepared by the teacher of history and social studies of the FGOU secondary school No. 4 of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation Latypova O.Sh. SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS ABOUT THE STRUCTURE OF NATURE. In the 19th century, speculative ideas about the atomistic structure of matter became on a solid experimental basis. Scientists have found the atomic weight of many chemical elements, created models, discovered the phenomenon of isomerism of chemical elements of molecular structures, introduced the concept of valency. The development of synthetic organic chemistry began
J. DALTON (1766–1844)
The English physicist and chemist, who played a major role in the development of atomistic ideas in relation to chemistry, discovered several new empirical laws: the law of partial pressures (Dalton's law), the law of the solubility of gases in liquids (Henry-Dalton's law) and, finally, the law of multiple ratios (1803 ). He introduced the concept of atomic mass and, taking the mass of the hydrogen atom as a unit, in 1803 compiled the first table of the relative atomic masses of the elements.
D.I.MENDELEEV (1834 - 1907)
Great Russian scientist; discovered the periodic law of chemical elements, which is the natural scientific basis of the modern theory of matter. Published in my life 431 scientific work, including 99 works were devoted to various fields of technology.
He invented the new kind gunpowder, defended his doctoral dissertation, organized the Main Chamber of Weights and Measures in Russia, wrote works on aeronautics, meteorology, economics, agriculture, public education. But D.I. Mendeleev made his most famous discovery in 1869, he discovered the Periodic Law, which brought him worldwide fame.
D.K. MAXWELL
An outstanding English physicist, is the creator of the theory of the electromagnetic field and the electromagnetic theory of light.
Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism received experimental confirmation and became generally recognized. classical basis modern physics.
Russian physiologist and educator, publicist, rationalist thinker, founder of the physiological school, encyclopedic scientist, evolutionary biologist, psychologist, anthropologist, anatomist, histologist, pathologist, psychophysiologist, physical chemist, endocrinologist, ophthalmologist, hematologist, narcologist, hygienist, culturologist, instrument maker, military engineer
THEM. SECHENOV
In the classic work "Reflexes of the Brain" (1866), he gave a natural scientific explanation of the conscious and unconscious manifestations of human activity. He interpreted reflexes as an automated stereotyped reaction of the body to external stimuli and divided them into unconditional (innate) and conditional (acquired)
EVOLUTIONARY PICTURE OF THE WORLD The development of scientific thought in the 19th century radically changed people's understanding of the world around them. The structure of living and non-living matter and living organisms, regularities natural phenomena and social development - this and many other evolutionary approaches to understanding nature and society were increasingly introduced into scientific circulation.
English naturalist and traveler, one of the first to come to the conclusion and substantiate the idea that all types of living organisms are evolving T in time from common ancestors. In his theory, a detailed presentation of which was published in 1859 in the book On the Origin of Species, Darwin called natural selection the main mechanism of evolution. Later he developed the theory of sexual selection. He also owns one of the first studies on the origin of man
C. R. DARWIN (1809 - 1882)
In his work "The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection" (1859), he established the main factors in the evolution of the living world and its laws. In his other work, "The Origin of Man and Sexual Selection", he substantiated the theory of the origin of man from an ape-like ancestor. Darwin's concept of life is the idea of
movement of its forms from
simplest to more
complex and perfect.
Russian biologist and pathologist
one of the founders
pathological evolutionary embryo
science and immunology, creator
scientific school, founded (1886)
the first in Russia bacteriological
station,
expounded the phagocytic theory
immunity. Created a theory
origin of multicellular
organisms. He owns
papers on the problem
aging. Nobel Laureate
prizes (1908)
I.I. MECHNIKOV (1845-1916)
The French philosopher formulated the "law of three stages".
First stage-
theological, when all phenomena are explained on the basis of a religious view of the world. The second is metaphysical, when explanations become abstract. The third stage is positive, i.e. scientific. It makes possible the study of society and its rational organization.
O. KONT (1798-1857)
German philosopher, sociologist, economist, writer, public figure, founder of dialectical and historical materialism. Marxism represented the development of society as a change in socio-economic formations (primitive communal, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist, communist)
K.MARKS 1818-1883
DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION. Throughout the 19th century, there was a process of separation of school education from the church, the formation of a secular school. Compulsory education children from 6 to 12-13 years old are covered. IN primary education transition to the public school system.
A network of secondary general education schools developed, which in most countries were called gymnasiums or lyceums. They taught subjects of the humanities and natural sciences. The 19th century marked the beginning of mass education for women. Mass literacy and the growth of the intelligentsia became a factor of progress and changed the face of the world.
SMOLNY INSTITUTE
MEDIA In the 19th century, newspapers became a source of information. In the second half of the 19th century, daily newspapers began to be published in almost all countries of the world. Various magazines (literary, popular science, etc.)- ". Reuters popular)
The newspaper "New York Times"
Information Agency
". Reuters
In the 19th century there was a differentiation of book business. Fiction literature and textbooks were published the most. In the second half of the 19th century, popular science literature began to be in great demand.
Encyclopedia Britannica.
Encyclopedic Dictionary of F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron.
US Library of Congress
Public library in St. Petersburg
SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL PROGRESS AND SOCIETY The 19th century began as a “age of steam”, and ended with the transition from steam energy to electricity and internal combustion engines. The energy capabilities of advanced countries and the opportunities associated with the introduction of new technologies in production have expanded. lifespan. Scientific and technological progress has also affected everyday culture.
Russian electrical engineer, military engineer, inventor and entrepreneur. Known for the development of an arc lamp (which went down in history under the name "Yablochkov's candle"), which laid the foundation for the first practically applicable electric lighting system
P.N.YABLOCHKOV
The first experience showed the great advantage of a candle in comparison with gas lighting.
"Russian Light" appeared in the capitals: Paris, London, Madrid, Berlin, Naples - and spread to the east. In Europe, companies began to operate the Yablochkov candle.
The use of the Yablochkov candle caused new inventions and improvements. Candles Yablochkov included in the chain sequentially in the amount of 4 - 5 pieces. Instead of the old regulators, Yablochkov used transformers
World famous
American
inventor. Only in the USA Edison received 1908 patents and about 3 thousand in other countries.
peace. He improved the telegraph, telephone, film equipment, developed one of the first successful variants of an electric incandescent lamp.
niya, created a super-powerful electric generator and participated in the construction and commissioning in New York of the world's first central thermal power plant with an extensive power supply network (1881)
T. A. EDISON
Edison invented the alkaline iron-nickel battery, the fuse, the rotary switch, the megaphone.
Participated in the creation medicines, dyes and other materials, developed a process for obtaining synthetic phenol and liquid products distillation of coal.
He laid the foundation for electronics and invented his own method of enriching iron ore.
N. I. PIROGOV
Russian surgeon and anatomist, naturalist and teacher, creator of the first atlas of topographic anatomy, founder of Russian military field surgery, founder of the Russian school of anesthesia.
N. I. Pirogov “created new research methods in the study of anatomy, new methods in clinical medicine, and military field surgery was also created. In these works, in the philosophical and scientific part, he gave a method, approved the dominance of the method and showed an example of the use of this method. In this, Pirogov found his glory ”(N. N. Burdenko, On the historical description of the academic activities of N. I. Pirogov (1836-1854).
Honored Russian Professor, Director of the Imperial Clinical Institute of Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna in St. Petersburg, author of works on field surgery of the abdominal cavity.
N.V.SKLIFOSOVSKY
French microbiologist and chemist, proved that fermentation is a biological process due to the activity of microorganisms, proposed a way to preserve food products using heat treatment. L. Pasteur studied contagious diseases (anthrax, rabies, night blindness, rubella, etc.). He proposed a method of vaccination against these and other infectious diseases using weakened cultures of the corresponding pathogens. He proposed to call the weakened cultures vaccines, and the procedure for their application - vaccination. In 1880 Pasteur established the viral nature of rabies.
German microbiologist, one of the founders of modern bacteriology and epidemiology. Proceedings on the identification of pathogens of infectious diseases and the development of methods to combat them. Formulated the criteria for the etiological connection of an infectious disease with a microorganism (Koch's triad). Opened (1882) the causative agent of tuberculosis ("Koch's wand"). For the first time, he isolated a pure culture of the anthrax pathogen, proved its ability to spore formation. Proposed methods of disinfection. Nobel Prize (1905).
References
http://class-fizika.narod.ru/port5.htm
http://www.artscroll.ru/page.php?al=Portret_D_I__Mendeleeva_1885__56201_kartina
http://www.medical-enc.ru/topographic_anatomy/pirogov.shtmlhttp://www.runivers.ru/philosophy/lib/authors/author152827/
http://www.bio.msu.ru/doc/index.php?ID=81
https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki
http://www.vokrugsveta.ru/encyclopedia/index.php?title=%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%2C_%D0%9B%D1 %83%D0%B8
http://www.e-reading.club/chapter.
php/83377/32/Gricak-Populyarnaya_istoriya_mediciny.html
http://bono-esse.ru/blizzard/RPP/O/Hystory/mechnikov.html http://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/enc3p/197026/%D0%9C%D0%95%D0%A7%D0%9D%D0%98%D0%9A%D0%9E%D0%92
https://www.etsy.com/search?order=most_relevant&page=4&q=encyclopedia%20book
http://kervansaraymarmaris.com/?p=3116
philosophy psychoanalysis science
New time replaces the Renaissance as a transitional period from feudalism to capitalism. The formation of the capitalist mode of production still nourishes the illusions of Freedom, Equality and Fraternity. The place of the alliance "religion-philosophy" is occupied by the tandem "philosophy-science". Philosophy is experiencing its finest hour, raising ontological and epistemological, philosophical and methodological problems. But the stake on reason and scientific and technological progress led to the fact that the humanistic anthropocentrism of the Renaissance gives way to a philosophical anthropocentrism of a scientistic nature. In a new capacity, anthropocentrism substantiated the need for industrial methods of mastering nature. The exploitation of nature turned into the exploitation of man, his alienation from everything, from everyone and from himself.
In conditions where the emphasis is placed on science and the development of technology, a person turns into a means of dubious ends. “As a result,” as F. Nietzsche subtly remarked, “God died.” “But even man did not become God,” added F. M. Dostoevsky. Moreover, man lost himself, turned into a public function.
In the XX century. the slavery of capital is replaced by the slavery of the absurd. "Second nature" as a system of intermediaries got out of control and exacerbated global problems. Science has become a hostage to politics. It becomes more and more applied, fulfilling the order of the current moment. The ball is ruled by civilized barbarism, destroying culture and turning the people into a population, into an object of manipulation.
Under these conditions, the traditional opposition of materialism and idealism in philosophy is replaced by philosophical pluralism. Such directions as scientistic, activity, anthropological, philosophical and theological and socio-critical are being formed.
Philosophical schools of the scientistic direction develop the philosophical problems of science, shaping the worldview of the scientific and technical intelligentsia and those sections of society that consider scientific and technological progress as the only means of solving the global problems of our time.
Philosophical schools of the activity direction develop socio-political problems of the development of society, forming the worldview of the broad masses of the population, linking their fate with the successful solution of the indicated problems.
Philosophical schools of the anthropological direction cover the philosophical problems of the individual and his relationship to the world, forming the worldview mainly of the humanitarian intelligentsia, as well as those strata that are most acutely experiencing or experiencing the results of human alienation.
Philosophical schools of the religious (theological) direction are associated with a range of issues aimed at substantiating the expediency of religion.
They form the worldview of believers, as well as all those who hope to find salvation from social and spiritual adversity in religion.
Philosophical schools of the socio-critical direction are focused on the analysis of what is and the design of what should be. They form the worldview of those broad circles of the public who are most acutely experiencing the global problems of our time and are ready to make their own contribution to their solution.
Philosophical pluralism of the 20th century. testifies that humanity is going through a protracted crisis, that non-standard problems requiring non-standard solutions have become actual in the “nature-society-man” system, and that the solution of these problems is far beyond the capabilities of classical philosophy.
Irrationalism is a philosophical doctrine that denies rationalism (i.e. opposition to classical philosophy).
The unshakable faith of scientists in the power of human reason and the obligatory nature of social progress was first given by the Great French Revolution (1789 - 1794), which gave rise to terror, a civil war with tens of thousands of human victims. This made many philosophers think about the real possibilities of reason and science and create their own, critical in relation to rationalism, philosophical systems.
The critical transition of the new philosophy played a positive role in the development of philosophical knowledge:
· a critical assessment of rational cognition was given;
its boundaries, the limits of its capabilities were determined;
· the ratio of mental qualities of a person, as well as psychological qualities (will, emotions, feelings, etc.) was studied;
· the spiritual world was considered not in its highest forms, but in terms of experience, practice, in psychological forms.
The new philosophy puts forward a number of bold and new ideas competing with the old classical philosophical system:
1. The idea of studying the life of an individual and the importance of its analysis, the primacy of studying the life of an individual over the study of large human communities (classes, peoples, nations, ethnic groups).
2. Movement from the idea of a free and reasonable person, capable of reshaping nature, society and himself personally, to a person who is rigidly determined by economics, politics, religion, etc. It turned out that a person has not only a mind and consciousness, but also a subconscious.
3. The consciousness and mind of an individual and (more importantly) public consciousness are not understood as an independent structure, but are declared to be subject to manipulation by various forces - the state, party, authorities.
4. The idea of two non-intersecting lines of human knowledge - scientific and philosophical, which have as their product scientific truth, philosophical truth, is being actively promoted.
Irrationalism manifested itself in such currents of Western philosophy as:
philosophy of science;
· existentialism;
· psychoanalysis of Z. Freud;
· some variants of Hermeneutics and Phenomenology;
philosophical mysticism.
The first steps away from rationalism to irrationalism were made by Kierkegaard, Schopenhauer, Nietzsche.
The first representative of the philosophy of life was the German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer(1788-1860). For some time, Schopenhauer worked with Hegel in the philosophy department at the University of Berlin. (Schopenhauer was assistant professor and Hegel was professor.) Interestingly, Schopenhauer made an attempt to teach his philosophy as an alternative course to Hegel's philosophy, and even scheduled his lectures at the same time as Hegel. But Schopenhauer failed and remained without listeners.
Subsequently, from the second half of the 19th century, the glory of Schopenhauer eclipsed the glory of Hegel. The failure of the lectures in Berlin was doubly offensive to Schopenhauer, since he sharply negatively assessed Hegelian philosophy, sometimes calling it the delusions of a paranoid, then the impudent nonsense of a charlatan. Especially unflattering was Schopenhauer's opinion about dialectics, which he considered a cunning technique that masks the absurdity and shortcomings of the Hegelian system.
Schopenhauer's main work is The World as Will and Representation (1819). The title of this work reflects the main ideas of Schopenhauer's teachings. The whole world, from his point of view, is the will to live. The will to live is inherent in all living beings, including man, whose will to live is the most significant, because man is endowed with reason, knowledge. Each individual person has his own will to live - not the same for all people. All other people exist in his view as dependent on the boundless egoism of a person, as phenomena that are significant only from the point of view of his will to live, his interests.
One of his original works was the "Treatise on Love", Schopenhauer believed that love is too serious a phenomenon to be left only to poets. In Schopenhauer's "Treatise" there are many interesting, vivid images arising from his system, for example, love is a strong attraction that occurs between two people of the opposite sex. Attraction, a mysterious force that attracts lovers, is a manifestation of the will of an unborn being, their unborn child - that is, nature “calculates” at the level of organisms of two people that, from a biological point of view, the combination of these organisms will give optimal offspring, and as a result, the energy of mutual attraction of these organisms.
Schopenhauer is usually called one of the founders of irrationalism, meaning by this term all those directions that belittled the role of a rational, conscious person in human behavior. According to the views of supporters of some philosophical schools, irrationalism is a negative phenomenon.
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