2
.1
.
Factors of production
- 1) resources with which you can organize the production of goods; 2) the resources used in production, on which the quantity and volume of output depend to a decisive extent; 3) factors used in the production of goods and services.
Factors of production = economic resources.
Economic resources
(from French. resource - an auxiliary tool) - a fundamental concept of economic theory, meaning sources, means of ensuring production.
Economic resources are divided into
: 1) natural (raw materials, geophysical), 2) labor ( human capital), 3) capital (physical capital), 4) working capital(materials), 5) information resources, 6) financial (monetary capital). This division is not strictly unambiguous.
The process of production is the transformation of economic resources (factors of production) into goods and services.
2.2
.
What are the factors of production
?
2.2.1.
Version #1: Factors of production \u003d economic resources: 1) labor (the activity of people in the production of goods and services by using their physical and mental capabilities); 2) land (all types of natural resources available on the planet and suitable for the production of economic benefits); 3) capital (industrial building, machines, tools). No less important is another factor that connects all the others, 4) entrepreneurial ability.
2.2.2.
Version #2: Factors of production = 1) labor + 2) means of production (natural resources + [produced resources = capital]).
2.2.3. Today, another very specific type of production factors has become immeasurably more important than before - 5) information (knowledge and information that people need for conscious activity in the world of the economy). The possession of reliable information is a necessary condition for solving the problems facing the economic entity. However, even complete information is not a guarantee of success. The ability to use the information received to make the best decision under the circumstances characterizes such a resource as knowledge. The carriers of this resource are qualified personnel in the field of management, sales and customer service, Maintenance goods. It is this resource that gives the greatest return in business. “What distinguishes a strong company from a weak one is, first of all, the level of qualification of its specialists and management staff, their knowledge, motivations and aspirations.
In addition to the listed factors in the economy, an important role is played by: 6) general culture; 7) science; 8) social factors(state of morality, legal culture).
2.3
.
Work- a set of physical and mental abilities that people use in the process of creating economic benefits.
Labor characteristics
: 1)
labor intensity
(the intensity of labor, which is determined by the degree of spending work force per unit of time); 2)labor productivity
(performance = labor productivity, which is measured by the amount of products produced per unit of time).
2.4
. Under " earth» Economists understand all kinds of natural resources. This group includes free goods (???) of nature that are used in the production process: plots of land on which industrial buildings are located, arable land on which crops are grown, forests, water, mineral deposits.
2.5
.
Capital(from lat. capitalis - chief) as a means of production was understood by Smith and Ricardo. Other economists have argued that capital is "a sum of money" and " securities". There is a view that human knowledge, skills and energy used in the production of goods and services are capital. Today, in a broad sense, capital is understood as everything that brings income to its owner. This may be the means of production, and leased land, and cash deposits in the bank, and the labor force used in production.
Capital happens 1)real(or physical) and 2) monetary, or financial(money used to acquire physical capital).
!!!
The factors of production do not include all capital, but only real capital - buildings, structures, machine tools, machinery and equipment, tools, etc. - that is, everything that is used for the production and transportation of goods and services.Financial capital (stocks, bonds, bank deposits and money) is not a factor of production., since it is not associated with real production, but acts as a tool for obtaining real capital.
Investments(from lat. investre - to clothe) - 1) long-term investment of material and monetary resources in production.
The continuous circular movement of capital forms its turnover. At the stage of production, different parts of productive capital are turned around in different ways (for different periods). Therefore, the capital is divided into fixed and circulating.
Main capital
(machines, equipment, buildings): 1) is used for a number of years, 2) transfers its value to the product in parts, 3) costs are returned gradually.
Working capital
(raw materials, materials, semi-finished products, wage workers): 1) spent in one production cycle, included in the newly created product as a whole, 3) costs are reimbursed after the sale of the product.
2.6
. Entrepreneurial ability is the most important production resource. They are possessed by a very small part of people who perform a number of functions, without which the organization and successful production activities are impossible.
Entrepreneurial Functions
: 1) the ability to correctly combine the factors of production - labor, land, capital - and organize production; 2) the ability to make decisions and take responsibility; 3) the ability to take risks; 4) be receptive to innovations.
2.7
.
Factor income
: 1) labor?> wage; 2) earth?> rent(income of the one who owns the land); 3) capital?> percent(payment for the use of other people's money); 4) entrepreneurial ability?> profit.
Rent(from lat. reddita - returned) - income regularly received by the owner from the use of land, property, capital, which does not require the recipient of income to implement entrepreneurial activity, extra effort.
Loan capital- loaned temporarily free cash on terms of return and payment.
Percent(from lat. pro centrum - for a hundred) - 1)credit interest
(loan interest -mouth.) - the fee that the borrower must pay for the use of credit, money or material values; 2)
deposit interest
- payment to the bank depositor for providing the bank with money on a deposit for a certain period.
2.8
.
Karl Marx on the factors of production
.
German economist and philosopher of the 19th century Karl Marx singled out the personal and material factors of production, while the person himself acts as a personal factor, as the carrier of labor, and the material factor of production means the means of production, which in turn consist of means of labor and objects of labor.
productive forces
(=
factors of production
) \u003d 1) personal factor (person) + 2) material factor, means of production (means of labor + object of labor).
Means of laborthere is "... a thing or a complex of things that a person places between himself and the object of labor and which serve for him as a conductor of his influences on this object." Means of labor, and above all tools of labor, include machines, machine tools, tools with which a person influences nature, as well as industrial buildings, land, canals, roads, etc. The use and creation of means of labor is a characteristic feature of human labor activity. The means of labor in a broader sense include all the material conditions of labor, without which it cannot be performed. The general condition of labor is the land, the conditions of labor are also industrial buildings, roads, etc. The results of social knowledge of nature are embodied in the means of labor and their processes. industrial application, in engineering and technology. The level of development of technology (and technology) serves as the main indicator of the degree to which society has mastered the forces of nature.
The subject of labor- a substance of nature on which a person acts in the process of labor in order to adapt it for personal or industrial consumption. An object of labor that has already undergone an impact human labor, but intended for further processing, is called raw material. Some finished products may also enter the production process as an object of labor (for example, grapes in the wine industry, animal oil in the confectionery industry). "If we consider the whole process from the point of view of its result - the product, then both the means of labor and the object of labor both act as means of production, and labor itself - as productive labor."
The totality of factors of production act as productive forces that are inextricably linked with production relations. Some characterize the material content of the process social production, and others its historically defined form. Evolving, each stage in the development of the productive forces, characterized by the type of production relations, constitutes a unique mode of production.
Mode of production
= productive forces + production relations.
a) property labor resources, information
b) suppliers of resources, funds, consumers of products
c) authorities
d) labor, land, capital, entrepreneurial ability
16. What do cartel members have in common?
a) unified marketing policy
b) unified management bodies
c) a single technological process
d) cross shareholding
Tasks for independent work
1. Make a comparative table on the role of small and large enterprises(firms) in the economy.
2. Justify the optimal legal form for the organization of your choice.
Literature
1. Civil Code Art. 23-25, ch.4, par. 1 "Legal entities (general provisions)".
2. Textbook ch.1, 2, 4, 5.
Topic 2. Organizational structure and management principles (for example manufacturing enterprise)
Fundamentals of organization theory.
The production structure of the organization.
Company management structure
Types of organizational structures of management.
The main stages of designing the organizational structure of the company management.
Organization management principles.
Fundamentals of Organization Theory
The economic activity of society is aimed at creating benefits that satisfy the needs of both society as a whole and each of its individuals. As such benefits in the economy of the organization, it is customary to consider specific products of labor, which are divided into three classification groups:
P _______________________
P _______________________
P _______________________
The activity for their creation is usually called production.
For the implementation of the production activities of the organization, it is necessary resources:
P _______________________
P _______________________
P _______________________
P _______________________
P _______________________
means of labor, objects of labor, labor itself, land, information (technology is its most essential component), which can be connected thanks to entrepreneurial ability on the basis of an organizational structure.
Organizational structure organizations - _______________________________________.
All modern economic entities are organizations that have General characteristics and functioning according to general laws in a single social and legal business environment. To be considered an organization, you must:
1. ______________
2. ______________
3. ______________
Thus, in organization theory, an organization is ________________________
________________
Any organization has a formal (documented) or informal structure. The structure of modern firms is determined by ________________ _____________________________________________. The first step in structuring the activities of any organization is vertical separation on ____________________ _______________________, whereby, overall structure organizations are considered to be ____________.
Each of these structures is built through a further deeper __________________________________, highlighting individual functions and transferring them to individual units. A deeper vertical division of labor creates _______________________________, which are built by delegating authority and distributing responsibility, which makes it possible to coordinate the performance of individual functions towards the achievement of common goals.
A typical horizontal division of labor in an enterprise makes it possible to single out following features:
in the production structure: ______________________________________________
________________
in the control system: ________________________________________________________
A person in the process can be affected by dangerous (causing injuries) and harmful (causing diseases) production factors (GOST 12.0.003-74), which are divided into four groups: physical, chemical, biological and psychophysiological.
TO hazardous physical production factors include moving machines and mechanisms; various lifting and transport devices and transportable goods; unprotected movable elements of production equipment (drive and transmission mechanisms, cutting tools, rotating and moving devices, etc.); flying particles of the processed material and tool, electric current, elevated temperature of the surfaces of equipment and processed materials, etc.
Harmful physical production factors are increased or decreased air temperature of the working area; high humidity and air velocity; increased levels of noise, vibration, ultrasound and various radiations - thermal, ionizing, electromagnetic, infrared, etc. To harmful physical factors also include dust and gas content in the air of the working area; insufficient illumination of workplaces, passages and driveways; increased brightness of light and pulsation of the light flux.
Chemical hazardous and harmful production factors according to the nature of the action on the human body, they are divided into general toxic, irritating, sensitizing (causing allergic diseases), carcinogenic (causing the development of tumors), mutagenic (acting on the sex cells of the body). This group includes numerous vapors and gases - benzene and toluene, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, lead aerosols, toxic dusts formed, for example, when cutting beryllium, lead bronzes and brass and some plastics with harmful fillers. This group also includes aggressive liquids (acids, alkalis), which can cause chemical burns to the skin when in contact with them.
TO biologically hazardous and harmful production factors include microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, etc.) and macroorganisms (plants and animals), the impact of which on workers causes injury or disease.
TO psychophysiological dangerous and harmful production factors include physical (static and dynamic) and neuropsychic overloads (mental overstrain, overstrain of hearing analyzers, vision, etc.).
There is a certain relationship between harmful and dangerous production factors. In many cases, the presence of harmful factors contributes to the manifestation of hazardous factors - for example, excessive humidity in industrial premises and the presence of conductive dust ( harmful factors) increase the risk of human injury electric shock(dangerous factor).
Exposure levels for working pests production factors are normalized by maximum permissible levels, the values of which are indicated in the relevant standards of the system of labor safety standards and sanitary and hygienic rules.
Maximum permissible value of a harmful production factor(according to GOST 12.0.002-80) is limit value the magnitude of a harmful production factor, the impact of which, with a daily regulated duration throughout the entire length of service, does not lead to a decrease in working capacity and illness both during the period of labor activity and to illness in the subsequent period of life, and also does not adversely affect the health of offspring.
The space in which exposure to hazardous and / or harmful production factors is possible is called danger zone.
As a result of exposure to harmful production factors, workers develop occupational diseases- diseases caused by exposure harmful conditions labor. Occupational diseases are divided into:
- acute occupational diseases that have arisen after a single (for no more than one work shift) exposure to harmful occupational factors;
- chronic occupational diseases that have arisen after repeated exposure to harmful production factors (increased concentration of harmful substances in the air of the working area, increased noise, vibration, etc.).
The choice of methods and means of ensuring safety should be based on the identification of harmful and hazardous factors inherent in a particular production equipment or technological process. It is very important to be able to detect a hazard and determine its characteristics.
Protection from harmful and hazardous production factors is provided by reducing their level at the source and by applying preventive and protective measures. At the same time, the competence of people in the field of industrial hazards and methods of protection against them - necessary condition ensuring their safety.
The study of the question of what refers to the factors of production belongs to a kind of sacred cows of economic theory, which considers them as resources that are somehow involved in production activities. Traditionally, the concept included such components as labor, land and capital. In the second half of the 20th century, information was added to these components. Some researchers, in addition, singled out entrepreneurial talent from the concept of "labor" as a separate indicator.
Analysis of the processes occurring in modern economy, gives some grounds to assert that consideration of the structure of factors of production now requires some addition and clarification.
If we consider what relates to the factors of production from the point of view of the trends prevailing in the modern economy, it becomes quite obvious that, for example, marketing has become quite an independent and important factor, the role of which in the conditions of growing competition is difficult to overestimate.
Here, the task of meeting the needs of the market comes to the fore, which limits the use of administrative methods of management and thereby increases market democracy and professionalism.
The classical model of competition is: "reduce the price, improve the quality, provide the buyer with additional benefits (in the form of payment, supplies, maintenance, etc.)". In addition, the implementation of the functions of competition and the positive consequences of its manifestations in the dynamics of the ratio of the price of consumption and the quality of goods, firstly, leads to the objective need to form competitive environment. And this should be done not only in the interests of producers, but, first of all, consumers, and, secondly, it will directly connect the functions of competition with its own advantages, both for companies and for the products they produce. In this case, it is quite appropriate to include one or another enterprise in the factors.
3. forces the enterprise, when forming its advantages, to take into account not only its own and industry interests, but also national and international conditions.
All this indicates that, answering the question of what refers to the factors of production, we can state with a certain degree of certainty that competitive advantages became a very tangible and isolated factor. To create them, the state needs to take measures to create a competitive environment and protect competition, stimulate the continuous introduction of innovations, optimize and improve state regulation taking into account the trends in the development of the world economy.
These advantages can be defined as the effectiveness of an enterprise in any area, which, firstly, gives it the best (compared to competitors) opportunities to attract and retain customers, and secondly, allows it to receive a stable profit and, on this basis, ensure the reproduction of the main capital.
The production process is a set of activities aimed at processing the initial material resources using various factors of production in order to create finished products, works or services. That is why it is necessary for any enterprise to have such components as investment attractiveness and capital, labor activity, land resources. Together they constitute the main factors of production.
Land resources
Land is a natural (natural) resource necessary for the existence of human society, which people use in their economic activity.
Today it can be said with certainty that land is the main factor of production of a traditional society, unique in its kind, the supply of which is limited. Considering it under the prism of geographical science, it can be noted that the earth is a territory, a place rich in natural resources and minerals. The usefulness of this factor is assessed by its ability to biologically reproduce, as well as by its suitability for agricultural operations. In addition to land resources, there are three other main factors of production, which will be discussed below.
Entrepreneurial Ability
For the successful development of any business, this is a very important factor. An entrepreneur must have a number of specific qualities and skills, as well as theoretical and practical knowledge, in order to establish a high-quality production and commercial activity.
Entrepreneurial activity is a kind of initiative and independent actions of citizens (or their associations), which are aimed at obtaining personal income (or profit). Such activities are carried out on their own behalf and at their own risk, under personal property liability, or on behalf of legal entity under his responsibility. Entrepreneurial ability is special kind human capital, supplementing the main factors of production, aimed at creating goods, works or services for the purpose of making a profit and satisfying one's own needs. Business (entrepreneurial ability) links together all the other resources of production.
Capital as the main factor of production of an industrial society
All property that is used to generate profit, in the aggregate, is capital. Investments (capital investments) are the direction of assets into production or the provision of services in order to obtain not just income, but also profit. As such, the term "capital" is no longer used as a reference to the main factor of production in an industrial society.
In modern accounting, a number of other indicators are used. financial analysis. For example, additional capital equity, retained earnings or reserves. Investments in their tangible form act as the main factors of production (fixed assets) and are used to create goods or services, increasing the economic efficiency of the enterprise.
Labor as a factor of production
The main factors of production are human resources, or rather, labor. This is a conscious activity of a person, which is aimed at meeting the needs of both society as a whole and each individual. It is thanks to such activity that a person adapts the surrounding reality, forcing the objects of nature and the objects of his activity to influence each other in such a way that this leads to the desired goal. Listing the main factors of production in the economy, it should be noted that labor is a kind of human capital (physical, professional abilities, intelligence).
The features of human activity are the following points:
- the labor force is formed, as a rule, over many years;
- labor force requires constant renewal and reproduction;
- it is important to constantly maintain labor skills and the necessary physical form of workers.
Also, the main factors of production are innovation and information.
Innovation activity
An introduced innovation that provides a qualitative improvement in processes or products and is in demand by the market is called innovation. An example is the introduction to the market of new goods or services with qualitatively new consumer properties, an increase in the level of efficiency of production systems. Innovations as the main factors of production in the economy are the end product of human intellectual activity, his reflections, creative process, rationalization, inventions and discoveries.
During the period of the emergence of the capitalist mode of production, as well as the diversified development of mechanisms market relations, science becomes an essential factor of production without separating from it.
Information as the main production factor of post-industrial society
Today it is one of the most important resources that is widely used in economic processes. Information can be applied in all parts of the system of productive forces of modern society. It is also an integral element of all stages of human activity, acting simultaneously as a means, an object, and a component of living labor. Determining the main factors of production, it should be noted that information is productive force, occupying one of the main roles in the development of production in modern society. This is possible due to the multifunctionality of information flows and their rapid reorientation from one stage. production process in another.
And although information has become a significant factor in production and development not so long ago, nevertheless, humanity has been using it since its inception, transforming the world around it, thereby changing information flows. Physical and geographical parameters are transformed when a person changes the course of rivers or drains swamps. The information contained in the topography of the earth's surface undergoes changes when houses are built or when minerals are mined. The information contained in the genotype is transformed when a new plant variety or animal breed is developed.
A necessary condition for resolving issues that arise before the subjects of economic activity is the possession of reliable and complete information. However, this cannot guarantee success. You need to be able to correctly use the information received in order to make the best decisions in a particular situation. This is where knowledge comes into play. The carriers of this type of resource are highly qualified personnel.
Rent and wages as types of income from factors of production
In conditions modern market all economic resources are easily bought and sold, thereby bringing factor income to the owners. Income from such a factor of production as land is called rent. The rent is received by the entrepreneur in excess of the established profit on the capital and labor expended. More favorable conditions of production lead to the formation of rent - for example, the land of one of the entrepreneurs is more fertile than the site of a competitor.
The factor income for labor is wages. This is a remuneration for the activity of an employee, depending on the qualifications, complexity, quality and quantity of work performed, as well as working conditions. The salary may also include various incentive payments, bonuses, compensation.
Interest and Profit as Types of Factor Income
Income from capital is a percentage, which indicates the share of remuneration for the benefit brought by it, capital. The ratio of value is determined by a common measure - money. This applies to both standing capital and working capital. The amount of remuneration is determined by the ratio of demand to supply. The higher the demand relative to the supply, the higher the percentage. Interest on capital is a completely fair and necessary form of income.
The factor income from entrepreneurial ability is profit. This is the difference between the amount of income and the costs of production, purchase, storage, processing, transportation, marketing of goods and services. Profits can be negative. In this case, it is customary to use the word "loss". The very concept of "profit" is quite ambiguous. But in general, it is perhaps the most important indicator financial result economic activities of entrepreneurs and organizations.
Marxist theory in the study of factors of production
K. Marx, a German philosopher and economist, singled out the following factors of production: personal and material. In the first case, the person himself acts as a factor of production as a carrier of labor power. In the second case, means of production are meant, consisting of means of labor and directly objects of labor.
Means of labor- these are various tools, machines, tools, machines with which a person can influence nature. This also includes land, roads, buildings and structures. In the process of his activity, a person creates means of labor, which, in a broader sense, should include any material conditions of work necessary for its completion. Objects of labor These are those natural matters that a person acts on in order to satisfy his needs.
According to Karl Marx, the sum of all production factors acts as a productive force, which is inextricably linked with production relations. The first characterizes the material content of the production process, and the second characterizes its historically defined form. In the process of improvement, this tandem constitutes a completely new and unique way of production.
Non-Marxist judgments in the economic doctrine of the factors of production
Unlike Marx, his opponents believe that new value is created not only by wage workers, but by all factors involved in production. For example, A. Marshall argued that capital and labor interact, receiving income from the national dividend, respectively, to the extent ultimate performance. He believed that cooperation between labor and capital is essential, and in themselves they are doomed to failure.
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