Fundamentals of marketing and management. Coursework: Fundamentals of Management and Marketing Principles of Management and Fundamentals of Marketing

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

1. Essence, goals, basic principles and functions of marketing

According to the definition of the American scientist F. Kotler marketing- a type of human activity aimed at satisfying needs and requirements through exchange.

The basic idea behind marketing is the idea meeting human needs and requirements(physical needs and needs for food, clothing, warmth, security, social needs and needs, the need for knowledge and self-expression, etc.). The needs of people are unlimited, but the resources to satisfy them are limited. So a person will choose those goods that give him the greatest satisfaction within his capabilities.

Demand is a need backed by purchasing power. It is not difficult to enumerate the demand of a particular society at a particular point in time. However, demand is not a reliable indicator, as it changes. Changes in choice are affected by both price changes and income levels. A person chooses a product whose combination of properties provides him with the greatest satisfaction for a given price, taking into account his specific needs and resources.

Human needs, wants and demands are satisfied by goods. Under commodity in a broad sense, one can understand everything that can satisfy a need or need and is offered to the market for the purpose of attracting attention, acquisition, use or consumption.

Exchange is the act of receiving a desired object from someone with an offer of something in return.

Market in marketing is understood as a set of existing and potential consumers of goods (sales market).

A key aspect of marketing is mindset. He suggests that when making marketing decisions, the manager should look at everything through the eyes of the consumer. Therefore, these solutions should be those that the consumer needs and wants.

The American Marketing Association (AMA) defines marketing as follows:

Marketing is the process of planning and implementing the idea, pricing, promotion and implementation of ideas, goods and services through exchange that satisfies the goal. individuals and organizations.

There are four components to this definition:
1) management action (foresight, goal setting and planning, meeting demand);
2) a set of controlled elements of marketing activities (product (idea), price, distribution (implementation) and promotion);
3) objects with the help of which demand is satisfied and goals are achieved (goods, services, ideas, organizations, people, territories);
4) the method of meeting demand (exchange).

Thus, the previous definition can be briefly expressed as follows: "Marketing is the management of the satisfaction of demand through trade."

Marketing goals can be:
– maximum consumption;
– achieving maximum customer satisfaction;
– providing the widest possible choice;
- maximizing the quality of life.

From the point of view of enterprise management, the following marketing goals can be distinguished:
- increase in income;
- growth in sales volumes;
– increase in market share;
– creation and improvement of the image, fame of the enterprise and its products.

Marketing management is understood as the analysis, planning, implementation and control of activities designed to establish and maintain exchanges with target customers in order to achieve certain goals of the enterprise.

The following tasks of marketing activities in the enterprise can be distinguished:
1. Research, analysis and assessment of the needs of real and potential consumers of the company's products in areas of interest to the company.
2. Marketing support for the development of new products and services of the company.
3. Analysis, assessment and forecasting of the state and market development in which the enterprise operates or will operate, including research into the activities of competitors.
4. Participation in the formation of strategy and tactics market behavior enterprises.
5. Formation of the assortment policy of the enterprise.
6. Development of the pricing policy of the enterprise.
7. Development of a policy for the distribution of goods of the enterprise.
8. Marketing communications.
9. Service.

1. Fundamentals of marketing activities. Principles, goals and concepts of marketing.

Marketing(from the English market - "market") - this is the original unity of rigorous science and the ability to work effectively in the market.

Marketing- this is a single complex for organizing the production and marketing of goods (services), aimed at identifying and satisfying the needs of a specific group of consumers in order to make a profit.

Marketing is a relatively young science (about a hundred years), but this does not mean that before the recognition of this science, no one used its methods. Basically, this happened on a subconscious level: from the moment the product and the market appeared, each merchant was interested in selling his product using various promotion attempts (advertising, customer research, etc.). Naturally, this was all at a primitive level. And only in recent decades in the science of management a new trend has appeared, with clearly defined boundaries, functions, goals, methods, called "marketing". This term appeared for the first time at the beginning of the 20th century. in the USA, and after only 15-20 years it penetrated and began to be actively used and developed in many countries of the world. Marketing begins its development in 1960 - 1970, it is influenced by both external and internal factors:

a) increased standard of living;

b) an increase in the share of disposable income;

c) improving the quality of provided social services;

d) the development of communication systems (people are actively starting to travel, bringing with them not only new goods, but also new needs);

e) the desire to use their free time to their advantage.

In this regard, entrepreneurs are beginning to explore these factors in order to improve their products, increase sales and maximize profits. In these marketing programs, firms include measures to improve the quality of goods, its assortment groups, research of buyers, potential competitors, pricing policy objectives, methods and techniques for increasing demand, and much more.

Marketing is a kind of philosophy of production, which is constantly subject to the market, political, economic and social influences. With the right understanding environment”, the ability to quickly respond to market changes, the ability to accept flexibility in solving strategic and tactical tasks, marketing can become the foundation for the long-term and profitable activities of any company.

In the very essence of marketing, certain concepts are laid down: need (need), request (demand), product and exchange. The initial component of human nature is need: the need for food, clothing, warmth, security, and so on, i.e. need It is the feeling of a lack of something. But the need, which has taken a specific form under the influence of the level of culture and personality of the individual, is called a need. Needs are limitless, and therefore a person chooses only those that allow him his financial capabilities. The world of goods and services is designed to satisfy human needs.

A need backed by purchasing power is called demand. Demand is a variable. It is influenced by such factors as the price level, income level, fashion and many others.

Product- this is what can satisfy the need (need) and is offered to the market for the purpose of sale.

Exchange is the act of getting something in return for something.

The commercial exchange of values between the two sides is a transaction.

To complete a transaction, certain conditions must be met:

a) availability of objects of the transaction;

b) the presence of the subjects of the transaction;

c) determination of the terms of the transaction;

d) determining the time and place of the transaction.

Any transaction takes place in the market. V modern society the market is not necessarily a physical quantity (place).

From here the role of marketing for the economy This is an increase in trade and market efficiency.

Marketing Principles

One of the foundations of the activity of any enterprise operating on the principles of marketing is the motto: "to produce only what the market needs, what the buyer will demand." The main idea of marketing is the idea of human needs, which is the essence of this science. From this follow basic principles, which include:

1) achievement of the final justified result of the company's activities;

2) taking over a certain market share in the long run;

3) effective sale of goods;

4) choice of effective marketing strategy and pricing policies;

5) the creation of market novelty products that allow the company to be profitable;

6) constantly conduct market research in order to study demand for further active adaptation to the requirements of potential buyers;

7) use an integrated approach to linking the set goals with the available resources and capabilities of the company;

8) search for new ways for the company to improve the efficiency of the production line, the creative initiative of the staff to introduce innovations;

9) improving product quality;

10) cost reduction;

11) organize the delivery of the company's products in such a volume, at a place and time that would most suit the end user;

12) monitor the scientific and technological progress of the society;

13) to achieve advantages in the fight against competitors.

The experience and practice of marketing clearly indicated that the use of only some components (studying the product or studying consumers) does not give the desired result. Only an integrated approach gives a result to the enterprise - it allows you to enter the market with your product and be profitable.

Goals and objectives of marketing

Marketing It is a social science and therefore affects a great many people. For a number of reasons (education, social status, religious beliefs, and much more), the attitude to this discipline is ambiguous, giving rise to contradictions. On the one hand, marketing is an integral part of the life of a product, on the other hand, it carries a negative perception: the creation of unnecessary needs, develops greed in a person, “attacks” with advertising from all sides.

What are the true goals of marketing?

Many believe that the main goal of this science is sales and promotion.

P. Drucker (management theorist) writes as follows: “The goal of marketing is to make sales efforts unnecessary. Its goal is to know and understand the customer so well that the product or service will fit the customer exactly and sell itself.”

It does not follow from this that sales and promotion efforts lose their importance. Most likely they become part of the marketing activities of the enterprise to achieve the main goal - maximizing sales and profits. From the foregoing, we can conclude that marketing is a type of human activity that is aimed at meeting human needs and requirements through exchange.

So, the main goals of marketing are the following.

1. Maximization a possibly high level of consumption - firms are trying to increase their sales, maximize profits using various methods and methods (introduce fashion for their products, outline a sales growth strategy, etc.).

2. Maximization consumer satisfaction, i.e. the goal of marketing is to identify existing needs and offer the widest possible range of homogeneous goods. But since the level of customer satisfaction is very difficult to measure, it is marketing activities difficult in this direction.

3. Maximization of choice. This goal follows and, as it were, is a continuation of the previous one. The difficulty in realizing this goal lies in not creating branded abundance and imaginary choice in the market. And some consumers, with an excess of certain product categories, experience a feeling of anxiety and confusion.

4. Maximizing the quality of life. Many tend to believe that the presence of a range of goods has a positive effect on its quality, quantity, availability, cost, i.e., the product is “improved”, and therefore, the consumer can satisfy his needs to the maximum, improve the quality of life. Proponents of this view recognize that improving the quality of life is a noble goal, but at the same time, this quality is difficult to measure, so sometimes contradictions are born.

Marketing Tasks:

1) research, analysis, assessment of the needs of real and potential buyers;

2) marketing assistance in the development of a new product (service);

3) provision of after-sales service;

4) marketing communications;

5) research, analysis, evaluation and forecasting of the state of real and potential markets;

6) research activities of competitors;

7) sale of goods (services);

8) formation of assortment policy;

9) formation and implementation of the company's pricing policy;

10) formation of a strategy for the behavior of the company.

Marketing Functions

The general functions of marketing are management, organization, planning, forecasting, analysis, evaluation, accounting, control. Specific functions are: studying the market, consumers and demand, studying the environment, implementing the company's product policy, organizing service maintenance, maintaining a pricing policy, merchandising, maintaining and stimulating demand, etc.

Marketing functions are the interconnection of activities.

The functions of marketing derive from its principles and come in the following widows:

1) analytical- this is a comprehensive analysis of micro and macro environments, which includes an analysis of markets, consumers, demand, competitors and competition, as well as products;

2) production- this is the production of new goods that meet the ever-increasing requirements of consumers and includes the organization of the production of a new product, the organization of supply and quality management;

3) marketing- this is a function that includes everything that happens to the product after its production, but before the start of consumption, namely: the organization of product distribution, the organization of service, the organization of demand generation and sales promotion, the formation of commodity and pricing policies;

4) managerial: Search possible ways development of the enterprise, especially in the long term, i.e. organization of strategy and planning, information management, organization of communications;

5) control.

Marketing concept

At one time, F. Kotler, professor of marketing at Northwestern University in the USA, gave the concept of "marketing concept", defining it "as a relatively new approach to entrepreneurial activity, where the key to achieving the organization's goals is to determine the needs and requirements of target markets and provide the desired satisfaction with more efficient and more productive than the competition in ways."

In other words, F. Kotler defines the essence of the concept of marketing using expressions like: “Find needs and satisfy them”, “Love the client, not the product”, “Produce what you can sell instead of trying to sell what you can produce ”, “To do everything in our power to fully recoup every dollar of value spent by the client with value, quality and satisfaction.” In other words, the main object of the marketing concept is a comprehensive study of the company's customers with their requests, needs and needs. The firm must build all its activities with the calculation of maximum customer satisfaction, in return receiving the corresponding profit.

According to F. Kotler, the core of the marketing concept is focusing on the needs, requests and needs of customers, maximizing consumer satisfaction to achieve the main goal of the company.

Thus, the starting point of the concept is the theory of consumer sovereignty. F. Kotler, conducting research, as well as relying on marketing concepts taken in a historical context, identified five global, basic concepts on the basis of which any company interested in making a profit has conducted (is and will conduct) its activities.

1. Production improvement: The main idea of this concept is that consumers choose (buy) those goods that they know and that suit them at a price. Therefore, managers of firms should first of all improve production, and then - increase the efficiency of the distribution system. This concept works in the following situations: when there is a shortage of a certain product on the market and when the cost price needs to be reduced to increase demand.

2. Product improvement: this concept begins to "work" only after the implementation of the first - the completion of production.

The essence of the concept of "product improvement" is that consumers will purchase only those products that have the best properties, the best quality characteristics. And most importantly, the product should be improved according to the opinions and wishes of customers.

When implementing this concept, one condition must be observed - the market must be saturated with this type of product. If this condition is not met, then there can be no question of any quality.

3. Intensify commercial efforts: this concept is that consumers will not buy goods in sufficient quantities for the organization until the latter takes appropriate measures to stimulate demand and sales. This is the situation when the product is present on the market in the required quantity and with the appropriate quality, but there is such an aspect as the factor of "intensification of commercial efforts", i.e. the company must make its product not only affordable and of high quality, but also show the consumer that the possession of this product is prestigious, distinguishes it from the surrounding reality. A stake is placed on the psychological factor, the "processing of the consumer" to strengthen his well-being in him.

4. The concept of actual marketing or target marketing: it is not only to identify the needs and requirements of customers, but the main thing is to provide them with a satisfaction that is more desirable for them than for competitors.

In the words of F. Kotler, this is explained in the aphorism: “Find needs or create a customer’s need and satisfy them”, i.e., in order to increase demand, it is necessary to come up with some kind of “know-how” for the product, it is necessary to distinguish it from the mass of goods in such a way that to make you want to buy it.

5. The concept of social and ethical marketing: F. Kotler considers it the most modern. The main goal of this concept is that for the company the main task should not be the fulfillment of all the conditions reflected in the above concepts, but should be the preservation and strengthening of social well-being, as well as the well-being of each individual client (consumer). The difference between social and ethical marketing from previous concepts is that any company, satisfying any needs, must act with regard to the long-term benefit of society. And it is precisely this direction of the company's image that should attract buyers as a competitiveness among many other organizations. And also this concept must be balanced in all three factors: the profit of the company, consumer needs and the interests of society.

Subjects of marketing

The subjects of marketing are manufacturers and service enterprises, wholesalers and various trade organizations, marketers, and various consumers.

Each of them have their main functions.

1. Producer or service enterprises - firms that produce goods or provide services.

2. Wholesale organizations - firms that purchase products for resale in retail trade.

3. Various organizations carry out the sale of goods to end consumers.

4. Marketing professionals perform certain marketing functions.

5. The consumer purchases products for his personal consumption.

It is important to note that usually one entity cannot assume all marketing functions due to the fact that it does not have sufficient financial resources; often does not produce relevant products; has no desire to carry out marketing activities; dimensions do not allow and much more.

Under the object of marketing, they mean the main categories and market factors:

1. Goods (services), i.e. everything that can satisfy a need or need and is offered to the market for the purpose of acquisition, consumption or use;

3. Offer;

6. Consumer;

7. Seller;

8. Deal;

9. Need, need.

Types of marketing

1. Conversion. This type is associated with negative demand. Negative demand is a situation where all or many consumers on the market reject a particular type of product (service). For example, vegetarians show a negative demand for animal products, etc.

The main task of this type of marketing is to develop a specific plan that contributes to the emergence of demand for such products, with a possible development perspective.

2. Stimulant.This type is associated with the indifference of consumers to certain products. The indifference of the lack of demand occurs, firstly, when the product loses its value in the eyes of buyers; secondly, goods have no value on this market; thirdly, when the market is not ready for the appearance of this product. The main task of marketing is to stimulate demand through certain methods.

3. Developing, associated with the beginning of the formation of demand for goods.

The main task is to identify potential demand and create an appropriate product.

4. Remarketing is the search for new ways of marketing in order to create a new life cycle for a product for which demand has fallen.

5. Synchromarketing designed to change the structure of demand. So, for example, in relation to theaters, which are rarely visited on weekdays, but are overcrowded on weekends. To solve this problem, synchronous marketing can offer either to advertise those performances that are on weekdays, or to increase the price of admission on weekends.

6. Supportive- this is marketing focused on maintaining the existing full demand by maintaining the required sales volume, stimulating sales activities, as well as controlling costs.

7. Demarketing is marketing that solves the problem of excessive demand by raising the price of a product, stopping sales promotion, etc.

8. Reactive designed to eliminate or reduce the demand for goods that harm the public welfare ( alcoholic drinks, tobacco products).

BASICS OF MANAGEMENT AND MARKETING

Lecture course

Vitebsk

CONTENT

BASICS OF MANAGEMENT

1. Essence and concept of management.

Any organization and industrial enterprise, and a supermarket, and a bank need high-quality management. Management is understood as the influence of the leader on his object, aimed at achieving the goal. The management of an organization becomes especially difficult in the conditions of a modern market system built on economic freedom, private property and ensuring the rights of citizens. Organization management in a market economy is called management. The fundamental qualitative difference between management and management in a planned economy lies in the completely new goal activities and how to achieve this goal. The goal of managing an organization in a planned economy is the implementation of a formal plan developed by the bureaucracy. The goal of management is the most complete satisfaction of constantly taken into account the real needs of a person through the market mechanism of demand, supply and profit. The method of achieving the goal of managing an organization in a planned economy is administrative regulation based on non-economic command pressure. The method of achieving the goal of management is the creation of an employee's economic interest in the results of his work.
The manager represents a new type of manager for our country, which has a number of distinctive features: 1) a radically new goal of activity; 2) transition to economic methods of organization management; 3) the ability to innovate, predict and take risks. The most important professional traits of a manager are the ability to make informed decisions and take responsibility for them.
The need to resolve complex and multifaceted problems of managing organizations in a market environment and the corresponding civil democratic society stimulated the emergence of a special field of knowledge - scientific management. The main sources of this interdisciplinary field of science can be roughly divided into three streams:

technical systems

The first stream brought to management a scientific substantiation of the organization of collective labor and management of labor collectives, knowledge of the laws of market relations and the economy of enterprises. The second stream gave management the theory of building the structure of an organization and its management system, methods for substantiating and making optimal management decisions, forecasting and risk, knowledge of self-management and self-organization of complex systems. The third stream of management owes knowledge in the field of management of modern production and its automation, computerization of the development of management decisions, ensuring high reliability of control systems. These sources are implemented in modern management as its components in three main areas of activity:
1. In the commercial sphere - in the interests of entrepreneurship. Here, management is used to manage commercial enterprises that produce goods and services. Its main goal is to make high profits.
2. In the social sphere - in institutions of education, culture, healthcare, social work with the population, as well as in organizations that manage social processes. The main task of management here is the achievement of statutory goals.
3. In the political sphere - in the executive authorities at the state and local levels of government. Here the main task- ensure management in a market economy and civil democratic society.
Management has two main purposes - science and practice. The task of management as a science is to develop the theory of management. The practice of management is associated with the use of theoretical provisions in specific work on the management of the organization and the generalization of this practice for the development of theory. Real managerial activity in its content is much richer and more versatile than the theoretical provisions underlying it. Actions must very subtly capture the properties of specific situations. The manager works in a dynamic environment, when there are constant changes in the external and internal environment of the organization. The challenge is to keep under control the nature of these changes, and to act in accordance with them.
No single theory or model of behavior can capture all the complexities of managerial situations. This can only be done by a specific person - a participant in such a diverse and complex process, endowed not only with knowledge of management theory, but also with experience, business qualities, and intuition. Therefore, management is objectively an art, where a person quickly evaluates all the factors that characterize the real situation, and on the basis of this makes the best decisions. Thus, we can say that management is a science, practice and art.

2. The evolution of management as a scientific discipline.

The concept of "management" arose in close connection with the kind of occupation that the first settlers in America were engaged in. It denoted the ability to run a household, handle the means and objects of labor, as well as weapons, drive around horses and manage them. However, with the change in the occupation of the population, the emergence of many professions and types of work, there was a need for activities that would link various performers, teams, and social groups in a single production process.
The first objective prerequisite that stimulated interest in management was the industrial revolution in England. The current market situation has become the second objective prerequisite for the development of management. The third prerequisite is related to the emergence of transcontinental companies. Their creation was completed in the late XIX - early XX century and turned America into the largest single (continental) market in the world. These and other factors made possible the formation of large industries and specific enterprises, the scale and complexity of which required formalized management methods. Thus, the emergence and formation of management as a field of scientific research was, firstly, a response to the needs of big business in professional management. Secondly, this was facilitated by the opportunity to take advantage of the technology created during the industrial revolution. And thirdly, it was the achievement of a small group of enterprising and inquisitive people who showed an ardent desire to look for better and more effective methods and ways of doing work. Successes in the development of management science were interconnected with achievements in other fields of knowledge, including the development of technology and the study of man and human relations (mathematics, engineering sciences, psychology, sociology, etc.). Because of this, management as management of an organization has acquired an interdisciplinary character. As these areas of knowledge have developed, management theorists and practitioners have received more and more information about the factors that affect the success of an organization. The interdisciplinary science of managing an organization began to be called managerial thought. The new knowledge gained helped specialists to understand the reasons why earlier theories under certain conditions could not stand the test of practice, and to find new approaches to solving managerial problems.
At the same time, great changes were taking place in the world associated with scientific and technological progress, with a change in the attitude of society and governments to business. These and other factors prompted representatives of managerial thought to analyze the presence of not only internal, but also external factors in relation to the organization that influence business success. New approaches to management were developed, which actually reflected the evolution of management as a science. Given this evolution, four approaches to management are known.

Table. The contribution of various schools to the development of managerial thought.

Approaches, schools	Contribution of various schools
1. Approach from the positions of management schools School of Scientific Management (1885 - 1920)	Using scientific analysis to better ways task execution. Selection of workers most suitable for the tasks and their training Providing employees with the resources they need to effectively complete tasks. Systematic and correct (fair) use of financial incentives. Separation of managerial work from non-managerial work.
Administrative School (1920 - 1950)	Development of organization management principles. Description of universal management functions and types of management activities. A systematic approach to managing an organization. Determination of the structure of the organization.
School of Human Relations (1930 - 1950)	Applying interpersonal relationship management techniques to improve satisfaction and performance. Application of the sciences of human behavior in management and the formation of an organization so that each employee is used according to his potential
School of Management Science (1950–present)	Deepening understanding of complex management problems through the development and application of models. Development of quantitative methods of assessment and justification to help the manager making managerial decisions in difficult situations.
2. Process approach	Management is a single process representing a continuous sequence of interrelated management functions.
3. System approach	An organization is an open system that interacts with the external environment. Therefore, management should be aimed at achieving the goals of the organization, taking into account changes in environmental factors and their impact on the organization.
4. Situational approach	The management process is a system of interrelated internal variables of the organization, environmental factors and specific management methods. The suitability and effectiveness of the use of various management methods is determined by the situation.

3. Laws and principles of management

Production management is effective only when it is based on the intelligent application of objective laws. Production functions and develops on the basis of a set of laws of the economy, social and social structure, and scientific and technological progress.
The main link in the management system is objective economic laws that express stable cause-and-effect relationships in production relations, which make it possible to determine the existing dependencies between individual processes and phenomena in the economy. The control system implements these connections and dependencies in various spheres of public life, being at the same time a means of implementing economic laws.
The general laws of control include:
Law of management specialization. The essence of this law is that the management of the enterprise is carried out by a significant number of employees. Therefore, there is a need to separate the various functions and powers of individuals and teams.
Law of management integration. The very concept of integration is inherent in the essence of management. Integration is the unification of disparate, specialized actions into a common process of functioning and development of management. This law, like the first, is of an objective nature, i.e. in practical work, management cannot be carried out without uniting and coordinating the activities of many workers.
The law of necessary and sufficient centralization of government. In practice, it manifests itself as the law of the optimal combination of centralization and decentralization. It assumes, on the one hand, centralized, concentrated management, i.e. implementation of the management process vertically (from top to bottom), on the other hand, it provides for the need to transfer certain management powers to lower levels of the hierarchy.
The law of democratization of management. It assumes that management is effective only if it satisfies the needs of specific people. To achieve this, it is important that management is not only professional, but also democratic. The democratization of management provides for the solution of a number of important issues: the participation of a significant number of employees in the management process, for example, by transferring property to them (in the form of shares or other valuable papers); application of the law of decentralization of management; innovations in the management structure, etc.
The law of rational use of time, or the law of time management. This law is one of the most important laws of a market economy. In essence, time has been transformed into economic category, the value of which determines all aspects of the enterprise's activity (the duration of production, the speed of capital turnover, adaptation to changing conditions, etc.). Under a market economic system, it is important to get ahead of your competitors, find new markets faster, launch new products earlier than others, transform management structures in a timely manner, and so on.
Mastering economic laws makes it possible to scientifically and reasonably identify the basic principles, methods and ways of managing the production, distribution and exchange of material goods in accordance with the needs and interests of the enterprise and its individual employees.
The principles of management stem from the laws of management and reflect the essential features of the economic system within which they operate and are conditioned by the production relations that prevail in society. The basic principles of management can be divided into three groups.
1. Principles of production management:
- the principle of profitability, which is associated, first of all, with the quality of products and an increase in labor productivity;
- the principle of planning is based on the economic freedom of the commodity producer and the economic self-determination of the individual;
- principles that determine the effectiveness of the company in the future: computerization, scientific organization of managerial work and innovation;
- the principle of designing organizational structures, which provides for a complete reorganization of management and production structures every 2-3 years.
2. Principles of people management:

corporate culture

The principles of this group determine the policy of management in countries with a highly developed economy - a focus on the humanization of management, the priority of a person in production and management relations.
3. Principles that contribute to the formation of the manager's personality.
This group of principles can be characterized as basic in terms of the effectiveness of the functioning of the principles of the first two groups. It is impossible to ensure the effectiveness of management, production efficiency, the introduction of innovations, the conquest of sales markets, the humanization of management, etc., without a professionally trained leader. In developed countries, the following two principles are recognized as priority:

4. Basic control functions.

The word "function" of Latin origin, it means performance, activity, duty. Management functions - types of activities necessary for the organization and management of a particular object. In their totality, management functions constitute management technology. to the most important general functions controls include the following:
The planning function is the first link in the chain of the management process in an organization (enterprise, firm). Planning - developing the goals of the organization and determining the best ways to achieve them. The planning process contains several steps:
- identifying the purpose of the organization (these are broad long-term guidelines for the organization), i.e. for which the enterprise operates;
- definition of the tasks of the organization's activities (these are specific short-term guidelines);
- drawing up work plans for the implementation of previously defined tasks and the preparation of standards;
- development of general directions for the implementation of plans at each managerial level, i.e. a system of measures aimed at achieving goals and objectives;
- development of specific schemes and rules for performing tasks.
The function of the organization is the process of allocating resources to fulfill the plans of the company. At this stage, the manager must take into account all the activities performed by employees - from the software of the company's computers to the work of truck drivers and sending correspondence - as well as all the technical tools and equipment used by employees in their activities. The main problem is the choice of the most suitable variant of the division of labor for the goals and objectives of the organization and the subsequent staffing, which includes the relevant positions, as well as determining the size wages workers, helping them acquire skills and assessing the quality of their work.
Leadership function - actions aimed at encouraging people to work efficiently and willingly. Certain positions and relationships with people, dictated by the organizational process, are entered by people with different past experiences, with individual interests, aspirations and personal goals. To rally employees and the organization as a whole into an effective work team, the manager must successfully master the leadership. Supervising subordinates, managers can give tasks, show how to do work, give orders, evaluate the work of workers and correct their mistakes. Leadership consists of two interrelated processes. First, it includes motivation, that is, creating incentives for employees to work with full dedication. Secondly, management includes mentoring, when the leader introduces the employee to what and how he should do, showing him specific methods of doing work, as well as demonstrating his personal attitude and approach to work.
The control function is monitoring how the organization is moving towards the intended goal, revising its course (if goals and objectives change in response to changing conditions) and correcting deviations from the accepted course (if it is not possible to achieve the set goals and objectives). Managers judge the state of affairs in the company on the basis of reports received from other employees of the company and from external sources. They develop guidelines in accordance with the goals and objectives outlined at the planning stage. Then, if necessary, they make adjustments by rescheduling, reorganizing, or refocusing. Thus, in the process of control, all three management functions are coordinated, since shortcomings made during their implementation are identified.

5. Management methods.

Management considers management methods as a set of various methods and techniques used by the administration of firms to enhance the initiative and creativity of people in the process of work and meet their natural needs. Management methods are economic, organizational and administrative and socio-psychological.
Economic methods affect the property interests of firms and their personnel. They are based on the economic laws of society, the market and the principles of remuneration for the results of work. On the one hand, economic methods stimulate the activities of firms to satisfy the interests of society (a system of taxes, bank loans, etc.), on the other hand, they serve to motivate the work of personnel (salary, bonuses, rewards for innovation).
Organizational and administrative methods are based on the objective laws of organizing and managing joint activities, the natural needs of people to interact with each other in a certain order. Organizational and administrative methods are divided into three groups:
organizational and stabilizing: establish long-term connections in management systems between people and their groups (structure, staff, regulations on performers, activity regulations, management concepts of firms);
administrative: provide operational management of the joint activities of people and firms; appear in the form of contracts, orders, instructions;
disciplinary: designed to maintain the stability of organizational ties and relationships, as well as responsibility for certain work.
Socio-psychological methods are ways of influencing the social and psychological interests of firms and their personnel (the role and status of an individual, a group of people, firms, psychological climate, ethics of behavior and communication, etc.). Socio-psychological management methods consist of social and psychological ones and must comply with the moral, ethical and social norms of society.
Social Methods:
- increasing social and production activity (copying leaders, setting standards for exemplary behavior in all areas of activity);
- maintenance of social continuity (competitions of skill, dedication to qualified personnel, holidays of founding and successful completion of large business operations of firms, etc.);
- social regulation (establishment of norms for relations between employees of firms, internal regulations, production etiquette; development and strict observance of values that are common to all personnel of the firm, etc.);
- moral stimulation (individual and collective).
Psychological methods in the practice of management are used to harmonize the relationship between employees of firms and establish the most favorable psychological climate. These include:
- humanization of labor (elimination of monotony, coloring of premises and equipment, use of specially selected music);
- psychological motivation (encouragement of creativity, initiative and independence);
- satisfaction of professional interests, increasing the creative content of labor;
- professional selection and training of personnel of firms for more effective use of individual abilities of the individual in labor activity;
- selection of people according to psychological characteristics and development of the necessary psychological qualities;
- acquisition of small groups, based on the criterion of psychological compatibility of workers;
- Establishing good relationships between managers and subordinates.

6. Characteristics and elements of the organization

The field of activity of the manager is the organization. An organization is a group of people united by common goals. Such goals in management are making a profit and solving the statutory tasks of the organization. Enterprises, institutions, as well as associations of several organizations can act as organizations. Organizations usually have legal status legal entity. Any organization assumes a certain location on the territory and within the space allotted for it there, a specific structure - its constituent parts and their interaction (hierarchy, interconnection), as well as the division between these parts of the duties provided for them - functions.
The characteristics of each organization should include:
main goals and objectives;
component parts (subdivisions);
distribution of functions between divisions;
resources used;
external and internal environment;
control system;
volume management activities.
The purpose of the organization (the ultimate goal) is to make a profit (for commercial organizations) and fulfill its statutory purpose (for non-profit organizations). The objectives of the organization characterize the steps leading to the achievement of this goal. In accordance with the goals and objectives of the organization and the needs of effective management, the necessary units are created.
The activity of the organization involves the use of various resources: natural (arable land, minerals, water resources); capital (material and intellectual property); labor (physical and mental abilities of personnel); managerial (the ability to rationally manage resources, organize work). In the course of the organization's activities, purposeful processing of materials, energy and information takes place.
The external environment of the organization is formed by the country's economy, market conditions, legislation, authorities, state and municipal governments, public organizations, partners, competitors, the media, the level of technology and technology, the moral guidelines of society, etc.
The internal environment of the organization is its mission, goals, objectives, personnel, structure, management technologies, production, work with information.
The management system is the most important characteristic of an organization. This system presupposes the existence and functioning of managers and control objects, channels for transmitting command information and status information (feedback), purposeful processing of this information, and activities for the preparation and adoption of managerial decisions.
The volume of management activities is directly related to the composition, content and scale of the tasks solved by the organization and, depending on this, can be performed as follows:
- with a limited range of tasks, the organization can be managed by one of their performers;
- expanding the range of tasks requires the allocation of a special person - a manager - to manage the organization;
- further increase in the field of activity of the organization, associated with the multiplication and complication of the tasks facing it, requires the creation of a linear hierarchy and functional specialization of management, the emergence of professional management - management.

7. Elements of the management process

The efficiency of work in an organization is determined by the degree and level of development of the vertical division of labor. This division forms the levels of control or the hierarchy of control. The word "hierarchy" came into the theory and practice of management from the church sphere. The term itself comes from a combination of the Greek words hieros (holy, sacred) and arche (power). In the science of science, the hierarchy reflects the arrangement of parts or elements of a whole (a system, for example) in order from highest to lowest. In management, hierarchy means the structure, location of subjects, positions, service ranks, ranks in the order of their subordination (hierarchical ladder). Hierarchy is a synonym for a power structure that has a stepped (level) structure; it is also a management principle that reflects the subordination of subjects of lower levels to subjects of higher levels.

Top management

Middle managers

Lower management

Hierarchy of management - organizational structure, which has the shape of a pyramid, consisting of the highest, middle and lowest levels of management.
Senior managers are the representatives of the highest level of management who have the most power and are responsible for the activities of the entire company. An example is the CEO of an enterprise who defines the goals of the organization, develops long-term plans, formulates policy, and represents the company outside of it. Although senior managers in the same corporations may be called differently - chairman of the board of directors, president, vice president - the functions they perform can be completely similar in content. It is the responsibility of the middle managers to develop plans for the implementation of the overall objectives established at the highest level of management, and to coordinate the work of the lower managers. The middle level of management includes managers of the enterprise, managers of departments and services, as well as other departments. At the lowest level of the management hierarchy, lower-level managers (or supervisory managers) are concentrated. They oversee the work of the performers and implement plans developed at higher levels of management. This level combines the following positions: shop foreman, site foreman, team leader and head of an office-type subdivision. As more and more companies reduce production costs and decentralize their operations, they are reducing the number of jobs at the middle level of management and at the same time more power functions are being transferred to lower-level managers. A higher degree of responsibility is forcing lower-level managers to improve their educational level and better master managerial skills.
Management activity as a whole is characterized by a wide variety of specifically performed work, its short duration and fragmentation. The behavior of managers in an organization determines their roles. Leadership roles are a set of specific behavioral rules appropriate for a particular organization and specific position which the leader should play in a particular situation. At the same time, an individual can influence the nature of the performance of a particular role, but not its content. There are 10 roles that managers perform in different periods of management and to varying degrees in relation to the specifics and scale of the organization, as well as the position they hold. These roles are grouped into three groups: interpersonal roles, informational roles and decision-making roles.
Interpersonal roles, also called role attitudes, define the behavior of a manager as a head (chief leader) and a link in the performance of work related to people in the organization and outside it. The informational roles (role settings) of all managers include the functions of receiving (receiving) and distributing (distributing) information related to receiving, collecting and disseminating information, as well as representing the organization when presenting it in the external environment. Decision-making roles define the behavior of managers as the entrepreneur who fixes disruptions in the organization, the allocator of resources in the organization to achieve its goals, and the negotiator to achieve benefits and remove obstacles to the success of the organization. Managers are constantly changing roles, facing daily challenges and unforeseen situations. However, depending on the organizational level of the manager, one type of role may take precedence over others in terms of its importance.

8. Formation of a vertical structure.

The organizational structure is both a way and a form of bringing people together to achieve their common production and management goals. The organizational structure of the enterprise is documented in the graphic diagrams of the structure, staffing tables, regulations on the divisions of the management apparatus, job descriptions of individual performers. The most important characteristics of organizational structures: the number of links; hierarchy: the number of steps or levels; the nature of the distribution of powers and responsibilities vertically and horizontally in the structure of the management system. To develop the organizational structure of a company, managers must consider three stages:

The vertical structure connects the activities of the highest organizational levels with the middle and lower levels of the structure to achieve the overall goals of the organization. Top managers, having determined the purpose and goals of the organization, formulate specific tasks necessary to achieve these goals. And to accomplish these tasks, they hire people who can help them achieve their goals. Since only a few workers have the skills necessary to perform all the functions that companies need, they can only operate through the division of labor (or specialization).
The organization works more smoothly if employees know not only what exactly and when they should do, but also who monitors whether they are doing the assigned work correctly. Therefore, managers who plan, when designing a division of labor for an organization, must take care to give enough authority to those who need it to do that particular job. In all organizations, employees are endowed with certain job responsibilities, that is, they must perform the functions assigned to them and realize the goals and objectives associated with their position.
Managers are responsible for ensuring that all employees perform their duties, relying on authority - the right to make decisions, give orders, take actions and allocate resources to achieve the goals of the organization. The structural diagram of the organization clearly demonstrates who and in relation to whom has power, who has what duties, and who is responsible to whom for their implementation.

Rice. 1. Scheme of a linear-staff organizational structure.

Each vertical structure has well-defined channels for exercising power and exchanging information. By distributing tasks, powers and responsibilities, the vertical structure forms a system of subordination - a continuous line of authority that connects each level of workers with the next. This line of command determines who has the authority to give orders and who is accountable to whom. Subordination is associated with two basic principles: 1) each employee is accountable to only one boss and 2) the power structure in the organization covers all employees and has a strictly defined form.
The simplest and most common system of subordination is called a linear organizational structure, in which the transfer of power from the upper echelons to the lower is clearly embodied. Businesses organized along the line structure type enjoy a number of practical advantages. In a line organization, by having managers clearly understand their decision-making authority, this process is greatly accelerated, discipline is simplified, and channels of business communication are easily established, which are of a direct nature. In addition, due to the simplicity of the linear organization, it is cheaper.
At the same time, there are at least three significant shortcomings in the linear organization. First, since all decisions are made centrally, workers at lower levels are deprived of the opportunity to gain the experience they need to move up the corporate ladder. Secondly, the technical difficulties in the activities of the company sometimes require special knowledge that its top managers may not have and which they cannot acquire in a short time. Third, scaling up a company's operations can lead to such an increase in levels of authority, which, in turn, will slow down the exchange of information and decision-making.
A more complex system, known as the line-staff organizational structure, arose under the influence of the need to combine specialization with managerial control. In the organization of this form, subordination from top to bottom is clearly expressed, but it also includes functional groups of workers under the authority of the administrative apparatus. Typically, the line organization covers the management of the main activities of the organization. The administrative apparatus complements the linear organizational structure by providing advice and specialized services. Representatives of the apparatus are not included in the subordination structure of the linear organization. The main advantage of a line-staff organizational structure is the ability to connect specialists in specific areas to a formal reporting structure.

9. Formation of structural divisions.

The formation of structural divisions means that the organization groups its employees into departments, which then combines into larger structural units necessary for the implementation of its goals. By determining how human resources are distributed within an organization, the structure of departments naturally affects how that organization operates; for example, it dictates the number of managers needed to link each department to higher and lower hierarchical levels.
Departments can be formed according to function (what people do), specialization (by product, process, clientele, or geography), as well as by teams (including the project manager), matrices (combination of functional and specialized units), and networks (organizations interconnected by an electronic system and performing vital functions). These types of departments are not mutually exclusive, so more than one of them can be used in the same organization.
Functional division - the division of employees of the organization into groups depending on the similarity of their skills, experience, field of activity and resources used. The most typical functional divisions include production and marketing departments, personnel departments, financial and research departments, and accounting departments.
In a specialized division, departments are formed in accordance with the uniformity of products, production processes, circle of customers or geography of activity. In such a structure, each unit is an independent unit that has all the functional resources necessary to achieve the goal. That is, such a structural unit practically does not need the support of other departments. For example, in a functional structure, all accountants would be in one department and all engineers in another, while in a specialized structure, teams of engineers and accountants would be in each department. One of the differences between functional and specialized structures is the level at which decisions are made. In the functional structure, the differences in the duties of engineers and accountants would be established at the highest level of management. In a specialized structure, the decision moves down the hierarchy to the level of heads of departments.
Specialized units have many advantages. They are able to quickly respond to changes because they do not have to coordinate their activities with other departments, which makes the organization more flexible. This structure contributes to better customer service, as each division deals with a limited range of products, customers or geographic regions. In such a structure, it is easier for senior managers to focus on complex issues, and novice managers gain broader professional experience (because they have the opportunity to try out various functions in their unit). But the division by type of specialization has its drawbacks. It can lead to duplication of resources in different structural units, thereby increasing the amount of costs. In addition, coordination between departments can be too weak: employees of individual departments sometimes focus too much on the narrow goals of their department and, in the end, forget about the ultimate goal of the organization. And, finally, a situation may arise when departments begin to compete with each other for workers, money and other resources, and such rivalry can be detrimental to the organization as a whole.
Team division - the distribution of employees into functional departments and at the same time - into teams operating on a permanent or temporary basis. The desire of modern companies to involve lower levels of management in decision-making has led to the spread of the team division trend, when employees are distributed across functional departments and at the same time into permanent or temporary teams designed to solve common problems of the organization. Teams give organizations greater flexibility and the ability to respond to change. They also encourage employees to be creative, develop strategic thinking, and facilitate the coordination of various functions. However, teams also have some disadvantages. There may be conflicts among team members related to dual subordination. Due to the need to spend time on meetings and joint discussions, the real productivity of teams can decrease. And finally, teams sometimes tend to over-decentralize decision-making, which causes functional managers to lose control of the situation, and for team leaders, the desire for group goals overshadows the overall goals of the corporation.
In the matrix division, workers are combined into permanent functional groups and project teams at the same time, using a combination of the principles of both functional and specialized structures. Organizations use a matrix structure when the work of functional units requires complex skills and high qualifications and, at the same time, the organization needs flexibility to successfully adapt to changing external conditions.
In project management, workers organized into functional groups temporarily leave their permanent jobs in the usual hierarchy when they are assigned to work on a specific project. After its completion, the temporary project team is disbanded. For example, Merck appoints a project leader for each promising study. This manager must lead the project from start to finish and oversee its progress through the myriad departments from the research department to government approval, at which the project receives final approval. It is the project manager who convinces scientists of various profiles to devote their time and funds to any project that builds trust in a particular product and promotes team cohesion.
Network division is a relatively recent invention; while the main functions are distributed to individual companies, which are interconnected and with a small parent organization, which is their headquarters, a single electronic system. The engineering, marketing, research, and accounting departments are no longer part of the same organization; they become independent organizations working under contract. The network approach is especially convenient for international operations, as it allows you to attract resources from all over the world. The network structure is particularly flexible due to its ability to attract exactly the resources that are required, and then move on to others within a short period of time. The organization can be constantly changing, and employees are provided with a wide variety of activities, and they get great job satisfaction. However, this approach deprives management of direct control because the individual transactions are so widely dispersed. In addition, one of the companies in the network may fail in its business or disrupt the necessary supplies, which will cause serious problems for the parent organization. Finally, it is unlikely that under these conditions, employees will develop loyalty to the main company and team spirit.

10. Characteristics of the informal organization.

In every work collective, along with the formal (official) structure of relationships, there are also informal (informal) relations between members of the team. If official relations are regulated by appropriate instruments, orders, instructions, then unofficial ones are not regulated by anyone and nothing. Groups of people created by the will of the leadership to achieve the goals of the organization are called formal. Their primary function is to perform specific tasks and achieve the goals of the organization. Relations between people are regulated by various normative documents: laws, decrees, orders, orders, etc.
A spontaneously formed group of people who have entered into regular interaction to achieve certain goals is recognized as an informal group (organization). Relations between members of such a group are formed on the basis of personal sympathies. Members of the group are connected by a commonality of views, inclinations and interests. There is no list of team members, indications of responsibilities, agreed roles. Informal groups exist in every organization. It is important for the organization that informal groups do not dominate. An informal group can either thrive or hinder the growth of an organization. The task of the manager is to minimize the influence of these groups and direct their power in the right direction.
The reasons that encourage people to enter into informal relationships can be grouped as follows: a sense of belonging, mutual assistance, communication, sympathy. Informal organizations can be similar and different from formal organizations at the same time. Therefore, we can distinguish the features that characterize informal organizations:

The existence of informal groups in an organization is quite normal phenomenon. Such groups most often strengthen the labor collective, and the formal head of the organization must support them. Friendly contacts during and after work, cooperation and mutual assistance form a healthy psychological climate in the organization.

11. Personnel management system

In the management system of each organization there is a subsystem for managing personnel and social development of the team (personnel department), but the main part of the work on personnel management is performed by the heads of departments. Personnel managers are an independent group of professional managers whose main goals are to increase the production, creative output and activity of personnel, develop and implement a program for its development. The total number of employees of the personnel management service is approximately 1.0 - 1.2% of the total number of staff. The role and organizational status of the personnel management service is largely determined by the level of organizational, financial, potential development of the organization and the position of its management.
The modern approach to the formation of a general concept and structuring of the functional division of labor in the field of personnel management in an organization involves the allocation of the following blocks:
1. Determining the need for personnel: planning the qualitative and quantitative needs for personnel, choosing methods for calculating the quantitative need for personnel.
2. Provision of personnel: obtaining and analyzing marketing information in the field of personnel, development and use of tools to meet the need for personnel, selection of personnel and its assessment, adaptation of personnel, employment management.
3.Personnel development: planning and implementation of career and job transfers, professional and administrative growth, organization and conduct of training.
4.Use of personnel: organization and provision of labor processes, determination of the content and results of labor in the workplace, analysis of costs and results of labor, labor productivity management, industrial socialization, introduction of personnel, its adaptation in labor activity, streamlining of workplaces, release of personnel.
5. Motivation of the results of work and behavior of personnel: management of the content and process of motivation of labor behavior, conflict management, the use of monetary incentive systems (remuneration, participation of personnel in profits and in the capital of the enterprise, etc.), substantiation of the structure of income, the degree of their differentiation, design wage systems, the use of non-monetary incentive systems (group organization and social communications, democratic leadership style and methods, regulation of working hours).
6. Legal and informational support of the personnel management process: legal regulation of labor relations, accounting and statistics of personnel, informing the staff and external organizations on personnel issues, development of personnel policy.
7. Development and implementation of the social policy of the enterprise.
8. Ensuring rational working conditions: creating safe working conditions and a social and psychological atmosphere favorable for each person.
9. Prevention and elimination of conflicts.
10.Organization of innovation activity.
11. Participation in tariff negotiations between representatives of employers and employees.
The personnel management service performs its functions together with the heads of the enterprise, linear and functional divisions. The scope of work for each of these functions depends on the size of the enterprise, the characteristics of the products, the situation on the labor market, the qualifications of the staff, the degree of automation of production, the socio-psychological situation at the enterprise and beyond.
The development of the personnel management service usually begins with the emergence of staff units with purely advisory functions, and then, as the personnel potential develops, the personnel service is vested with managerial powers and begins to participate directly in the management of the organization.
The following options for the organizational structure of the personnel management service are possible:
1) with a small number of personnel and low labor intensity of the function of the personnel management system, the implementation of individual tasks is entrusted to a specific specialist, and not to a unit;
2) with functional areas of the organization sufficiently isolated in spatial and administrative respects, a personnel management service is created, which has several divisions (for example, the research and development personnel service, the financial and accounting management personnel service, the production personnel service, etc.);
3) with a product type of structure, the central personnel service, subordinate to the head of the organization, includes personnel services for product A, B, C, etc., while the presence of a centralized personnel service is determined by the degree of legal and administrative independence of product divisions;
4) in large organizations with broad financial opportunities, further structuring of the internal divisions of the personnel management system can be observed with the allocation of independent departments, for example, the department of training (training and retraining of personnel).

12. Managerial work

The concept of managerial work is to a certain extent connected with the concept of management as an object or sphere of its application. If we consider that any labor manifests itself in two forms - physical and mental, then one of the varieties of mental labor is managerial.
Managerial work has been singled out as a special category of social labor with subsequent differentiation by types and subtypes of work and is based on the understanding of management as a type of professional activity inherent in any joint work. If a group of persons participates in one common labor process, then the need for coordination of their labor efforts necessarily arises.
Managerial work is a type of social work, the main task of which is to ensure purposeful, coordinated activities of both individual participants in the joint labor process and work collectives as a whole. In fact, this is a systematic activity of employees of administrative and managerial personnel, aimed at organizing, regulating, motivating and monitoring the work of employees of the organization. The content of managerial work depends on its object and is determined by the structure of production processes, labor methods, its technical equipment, as well as the relationships that arise in the process of performing managerial functions.
Managerial work has its own specific features:
1) he participates in the creation of material wealth not directly, but through the labor of other persons;
2) the management process and the people involved in it act as the subject of managerial work;
3) its result is managerial decisions;
4) the means of labor are organizational and computer technology;
5) this is mental work, therefore a direct measurement of its productivity is possible only in relation to technical performers and, to some extent, specialists.
With the development of market relations, the further deepening of the processes of division and cooperation of labor, managerial work is isolated into a relatively independent sphere and consolidated by certain organizational forms, which together form an autonomous system of organization management. Not only the use of surface, but also deep (strategic) reserves of the organization depends on the level of managerial work. The main feature of this type of labor activity is that the manager solves the problems of development and improvement of the organization in the organizational aspect, influencing the people who must directly solve these problems.

13. Culture of managerial work.

One of the main elements of management is management culture. Managerial culture is a set of values, norms, points of view and ideas typical for a manager, which consciously form a model of his behavior. At the heart of managerial work are certain norms that must be strictly observed by the manager. The most important ones are:
1) legal norms of managerial work, which are reflected in state-legal regulations. The culture of the manager in this sense consists in the knowledge and implementation of legal norms;
2) moral norms - regulate the behavior of a manager in the field of morality and morality;
3) organizational norms - establish the structure of the organization, the composition and procedure for the activities of functional units and their leaders; internal regulations and other norms of the organizational plan adopted in the organization;
4) economic norms - regulate the economic activity of the organization.
There are other types of norms (technical, aesthetic, etc.) that form the managerial culture in a certain way. Ultimately, a set of elements is formed that characterizes the activities of a manager within the framework of a culture of managerial work.
Personal culture. Includes skill level; ethical education; personal hygiene and appearance; form of address to subordinates, etc.
Rational distribution of working time. This is a clear planning of personal work in the following areas: work with documents; work with personnel; solution of socio-economic issues; solving commercial issues; meetings, negotiations; waste of time; unspecified time.
Workplace culture. Only the documents you need to work should be on your desktop. In the office, it is necessary to carry out cleaning in a timely manner, to replace the failed furniture.
The culture of holding mass events. This includes a culture of holding various kinds of meetings, negotiations and conversations.
Visitor culture. It assumes compliance with the rules and requirements when hiring employees, both on personal and official matters. Most managers set specific days and hours for appointments. If the head for some reason cannot conduct the reception, then this should be carried out by his deputy.
Culture in writing. This is the mandatory registration of letters, the determination of the terms for their consideration, the personal responsibility of the head for the timely and correct response to them, the mandatory response to each letter.
A culture of speech. About 80% of a manager's working time is connected with contacts with people. Therefore, the ability to speak (communicate) is an important part of the manager's work culture.
Organizational culture of the leader. Determines the degree of knowledge of management theory, methods of organizational work, the ability to perform a variety of organizational procedures: selection and placement of personnel, work with personnel; development of organizational norms, personal work plans; setting tasks and bringing them to the performers, management, control of execution, etc.

14. Characteristics of management decisions.

One of the performance indicators of a manager is his ability to make the right decisions. Development and decision-making is a creative process in the activities of the leader. A management decision is the most rational course of action out of the many possible under the given conditions of the functioning of the management system. In a broader sense, a managerial decision is considered as the main type of managerial work, a set of interrelated, purposeful and logically consistent managerial actions that ensure the implementation of managerial tasks. Management decisions can be classified according to the following criteria:
- according to the degree of influence on the future of the organization: strategic and tactical;
- by functional purpose: planned, organizational, coordinating, regulating, control;
- by spheres of action: economic, social, technical, technological, personnel, etc.;
- by duration: long, medium and short-term;
- by the scale of the problems to be solved: general, particular;
- according to the form of preparation: individual, collegial and collective decisions;
- according to the rigidity of the regulation: contour, structured and algorithmic;
- on the basis of belonging to the hierarchical levels of the management system: higher, middle, lower levels;
- by development methods: heuristic, graphic, analytical;
- according to the degree of mandatory execution: directive, recommendatory and oriented;
- by degree of complexity: simple, complex and unique;
- by production methods: template and creative;
- by the frequency of acceptance: one-time (random) and recurring;
- by breadth of coverage: general (concerning all employees) and special;
In management theory, intuitive, adaptive and rational decisions are also distinguished. The intuitive decision is based on the manager's assumption that his choice is correct. It is influenced by the so-called "sixth sense", a kind of insight that visits managers with a broad outlook. Adaptive decisions are based on general knowledge, common sense - a meaningful experience of life, professional activity, a heightened sense of reality. It involves the implementation of those steps (as amended to date) that were successful in a similar situation in the past. The positive side of this solution is simplicity and efficiency. However, it is characterized by subjectivity, due to the characteristics of the person making the decision, the depth of his understanding of the situation and the problem (which is also characteristic of an intuitive decision). A rational decision involves the use of scientific methods and objective criteria. But complete rationalism is also impossible.
Studies show that 45 percent of the time decisions are not made because of an unpleasant problem, 35 percent of the time - because of the unclear distribution of responsibilities, 20 percent of the time the wrong decisions are made. Thus, in practice, any decisions contain elements of irrationality and subjectivism, which imposes certain requirements on the manager's personality.
Management decisions, especially in large companies, affect the interests of many people, which requires careful and comprehensive preparation. Therefore, decision-making acts as a process that requires organization and management. The decision making model is as follows:
Stage 1 - analysis of the problem situation and setting the task:
Stage 2 - determination of the parameters of the operation and the selection of indicators of its success,
Stage 3 - building a descriptive (conceptual) model for choosing a solution:
Stage 4 - formation of a solution.
The decision-making process ends with the implementation of the decision, the analysis of the results obtained and the correction of the decision.

15. Methods of making managerial decisions.

A large group of methods is used in the development and adoption of managerial decisions. Heuristic methods are used if the dependencies between the elements of the problematic task are expressed by qualitative characteristics. Heuristic methods are based on logic, common sense and theoretical reasoning. They allow you to find solutions close to optimal. One of the main reasons for the use of heuristic methods is the presence of a large number of limitations and uncertainties, the influence of which is practically impossible to determine by analysis or is not economically feasible. For the most part, heuristic methods are based on the manager's intuition. Their advantage is that they are taken quickly, the disadvantage is that informal methods do not guarantee against choosing erroneous (inefficient) decisions.
Collective methods of discussion and decision-making can be different: a meeting, a meeting, work in a commission, etc. The most common method of collective preparation of managerial decisions is "brainstorming" or "brainstorming". It is designed to bring out new ideas and ways to solve problems as they are discussed in a conducive atmosphere for generating innovation. All ideas are recorded and then analyzed by experts. The Delphi method got its name from the Greek city of Delphi, famous for the sages who lived there - predictors of the future. The Delphi method is used to examine decisions by a group of experts in 4 rounds, during which they get acquainted with the assessments of colleagues and, as a result, develop a consolidated opinion that takes into account the judgment of the members of the entire group. Ring (Japanese) system involves making decisions in accordance with individual preferences. If they do not match, then a preference vector arises, which is determined using one of the following principles: majority vote principle, dictator principle, Cournot principle, Pareto principle, Edgeworth principle. Knowing the preferences of coalitions, it is possible to make the optimal decision without harming each other.
Quantitative decision-making methods are based on the use by experts of large information capabilities of computer technology and are considered the most modern:

16. Requirements for a manager.

Effective leadership implies the ability to share one's vision of problems with others, to motivate employees to achieve their goals, i.e. manage with people, not manage people. Because both people and situations are constantly changing, a manager must be flexible enough to accommodate the ongoing change. In this regard, it is necessary to develop a general model of a modern manager.
1. Knowledge and skills of a manager.
A modern manager is perceived all over the world as an effective, innovative leader = leader + power + work style + career. The manager must have a broad outlook and systematic non-standard thinking on the issues of internal interconnection, factors of the corporation and the interaction of the latter with external environment. He must have high general human qualities and psychological abilities, have the ability to take reasonable and measured risks, be able to carry out business design, develop, adjust and implement a business plan. To be able to carry out marketing research, predict the development of the organization, taking into account the needs and the occupation of new innovative niches in it.
2. Personal qualities of a manager. The manager must have:

decisions taken

3. Ethical norms of the manager. The manager in his activities with colleagues and partners is guided by generally accepted moral rules and norms: follow the methods of fair competition; do not use "dirty money" in their activities; “play openly”, if the partner does the same, try to fulfill the promise given to him under any conditions, use only honest methods when trying to influence subordinates, be demanding, but not offend dignity, be attentive and precautionary.
4. Personal resources of the manager. The main resources of a manager are: information and information potential, time and people, skillfully using which, the manager ensures high results, constantly increasing the competitiveness of the organization he leads.
5. Skills and abilities of the manager to effectively manage. Management effectiveness can be affected by:

Practice shows that some leaders skillfully lead people behind them, successfully overcoming the difficulties that arise, while others in such conditions cause only distrust on the part of their subordinates and fail. The inability to convince, motivate the actions of subordinates, and finally, to influence a person so that he wants to fulfill the decision made by the manager is evidence that the leader does not have the full set of qualities that a manager needs.

17. Power and personal influence.

The potential or real possibility of influencing others is called power. Power can take a variety of forms: utilitarian (impact through strong motives), authoritarian-normative (legitimate power) and united (group power).
At the heart of managing people is influence, that is, the psychological (emotional or rational) impact that is exerted on them in order to change their behavior. The specific methods of influence are very diverse. In the group of emotional means of influence, the main place is occupied by "infection" and imitation. "Contagion" is characterized by an almost automatic, unconscious transmission emotional state one person to another. Using the mechanism of infection, the manager can significantly increase the cohesion of the team, mobilize it to achieve the goals of the organization. Imitation is the assimilation of actions, deeds, manners of behavior and even the way of thinking of other persons. If “infection” is characterized by the transmission of an emotional state, then conscious imitation is a way of borrowing the best that others have.
The group of methods of rational influence includes demand, persuasion, suggestion, praise, criticism, request, threat, bribery. The requirement assumes that one person, using the unilateral dependence (more often legal) on him of another person, prescribes certain actions to the latter. Persuasion is reduced to proving the correctness of a particular task of the leader. First of all, it affects the mind, activates thinking, but at the same time it touches feelings, causes experiences, as a result of which a change in views can occur. Therefore, persuasion must be not only rational, but also emotional. Suggestion is designed for non-critical perception of words, thoughts and volitional impulses of the leader. It differs from persuasion in its categoricalness, pressure of the will and authority of the manager. Many managers successfully influence people through suggestion. Commendation should follow any meritorious action by performers that contributes to the organization's goals. Lack of praise, especially for good work, undeserved or insincere praise is demotivating, therefore, to increase its effectiveness, it is desirable to have objective criteria. Criticism is a form of negative assessment of shortcomings and omissions in work. It should be, first of all, constructive, stimulate human actions aimed at eliminating them, and indicate their possible options. A request is a way of influencing a subordinate based on voluntary, motivating, non-coercive motives. By asking, the manager is trying to appeal to the best side of the other person's nature. A positive result is achieved if there is a good relationship between the leader and the subordinate. Threat - intimidation, a promise to harm a subordinate. They are based on the assumption that fear is sometimes a sufficient motive to induce a person to carry out tasks with which he internally disagrees. As a rule, threats work for a short time (while the subordinate is in the "zone of fear", i.e. afraid of the leader). The threat causes a struggle between two personalities, and here the loser will always be the one who harbors the idea of winning in the future (no one wants to be constantly a loser). Bribery - inclination to one's side, location in one's favor of a subordinate by any means. Those. a manager can give his subordinate any advantages if he changes his behavior in a certain way. In some cases, bribery is an honest approach that provides the subordinate with additional rewards for extra effort, such as: "Work overtime today and you can leave work early tomorrow."
Every manager needs to know that using various ways influence on subordinates, one should be guided by the rules of business conduct and the norms of professional ethics. In any case, the influence should not cause the subordinate to feel irritation, hatred, annoyance and stress.

18. The authority of the manager.

Success in managerial activity depends not so much on the strength of power, but on the strength of the personal authority of the manager. There are spiritual values, without which there can be no true citizen, a conscious member of the team, a good leader. These values include the authority of the manager. Authority is the well-deserved trust that a manager enjoys from subordinates, senior management and work colleagues. This is the recognition of the individual, the assessment by the team of the compliance of the subjective qualities of the manager with the objective requirements. Authority should be viewed as a system of relationships, values and results of work. The authority of the leader, associated with the performance of his main functions in accordance with his position, must be supported by personal example and high moral character. In this sense, two sources (statuses) of authority should be distinguished:

A leader who enjoys authority wins people over and influences them positively. The subordinates treat the decisions of an authoritative and non-authoritative manager differently. In the first case, the instruction is accepted without internal resistance, readily, and carried out, as a rule, without additional administrative pressure. The orders of non-authoritative management always cause difficult internal experiences, and distrust of such a manager turns into distrust of his decisions. It should be borne in mind that caring for the authority of a leader is not only his personal matter, but also that of top management, and a leader of the same level, and especially subordinates who are called upon to strengthen, protect and improve him. From him they should take an example of a conscientious attitude to work, organization, honesty, modesty. Authority should be considered as a factor facilitating management, increasing its efficiency. Strengthening authority, the manager needs to ensure that he does not suppress them, does not fetter the initiative of subordinates. The methods of creating (forming) authority must comply with the norms of morality and ethics in force in society. Artificial methods of building authority do not lead to success; as a result, an imaginary, or false, authority (pseudo-authority) appears. A. Makarenko singled out the following types of pseudo-authority:
the authority of the distance - the leader believes that his authority increases if he is "farther" from his subordinates and stays with them officially;
the authority of kindness - always be kind - this is the motto of this leader. Such kindness reduces demands. Sometimes a good leader does a disservice to a subordinate;
the authority of pedantry - in this case, the manager resorts to petty care and rigidly determines all stages of the task by subordinates, thereby fettering their creativity and initiative;
the authority of swagger - the leader is arrogant, proud and tries everywhere to emphasize his former or imaginary present merits. It seems to such a leader that these "merits" provide him with high authority;
authority of suppression - the manager resorts to threats, sows fear among subordinates. He mistakenly believes that such techniques will strengthen his authority. Ultimately, this deprives people of confidence, initiative, gives rise to reinsurance and even dishonesty.

19. Characteristics of management styles.

The word style is of Greek origin. Initially, it meant a rod for writing on a wax board, and later it was used in the meaning of "handwriting". Hence, we can assume that the style of leadership is a kind of "handwriting" in the actions of the manager. A more complete definition of leadership style: a relatively stable system of ways, methods and forms of practical activity of a manager. In addition, management style is understood as the manner and way of behavior of a manager in the process of preparing and implementing management decisions.
Leadership style is a strictly individual phenomenon, as it is determined by the specific characteristics of a particular person and reflects the peculiarities of working with people and the decision-making technology of this particular person. The style is regulated by the personal qualities of the manager. In the process of labor activity, a certain strictly individual type is formed, the "handwriting" of the leader, whose actions are almost impossible to repeat in detail. Just as no two fingerprints are the same, no two managers are the same with the same leadership style.
For the first time, the issue of leadership styles was considered by K. Levin, who singled out authoritarian, democratic and liberal styles.
The authoritarian style is characterized by the centralization of power in the hands of one leader, who demands that all affairs be reported only to him. This style is characterized by a focus on administration and limited contacts with subordinates. Such a manager single-handedly makes (or cancels) decisions, preventing his subordinates from taking the initiative, is categorical, often harsh with people. Always orders, disposes, instructs, but never asks. Everything new is perceived by him with caution or is not perceived at all, since in managerial work he practically uses the same methods. A manager becomes an autocrat when he is inferior in quality to the people he leads, or if his subordinates have too low a general and professional culture. This style does not stimulate the initiative of subordinates, on the contrary, it is often punished by an autocrat, which makes it impossible to increase the efficiency of the organization.
A manager who uses a predominantly democratic style seeks to solve as many issues as possible collegially, systematically inform subordinates about the state of affairs in the team, and responds correctly to criticism. In communication with subordinates, he is extremely polite and friendly, is in constant contact, delegates part of the managerial functions to other specialists, trusts people. Demanding but fair. All members of the team take part in preparing for the implementation of management decisions.
A leader with a liberal leadership style practically does not interfere in the activities of the team, and employees are given complete independence, the opportunity for individual and collective creativity. Such a leader with subordinates is usually polite, ready
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