Multidimensional content management decisions. Aspects:
economic (manifested in the fact that the development and implementation of any management decision requires financial, material and other costs),
social (embedded in the mechanism of personnel management, which includes levers of influence on a person),
organizational (consists in the fact that this work involves company staff),
legal (consists in strict observance of the legislative acts of the Russian Federation, statutory and other documents of the company itself),
political (in accordance with managerial decisions of regulatory requirements and the possible resonance of decisions made in the external environment),
technological (manifested in the ability to provide personnel with the necessary technical, information tools and resources for the development and implementation of management decisions), psychological (Depending on the psychological study, a management decision may encounter opposition or interaction from its potential executors),
pedagogical (educational nature of SD, the formation of positive moral attitudes, ensuring the qualification growth of personnel),
ethical()
Environmental aspects (environmental protection).
Functional groups of management decisions.
There are several types of solutions typical for the field of management:
1. The following decisions are made in the planning process: a decision on the most important task and the nature of the business; about goals; about interaction with the external environment; about the strategy and tactics that are chosen by the organization to achieve its goals.
2. In the process of organizing the activities of the company, the following decisions are made: on structuring the work of the organization; on the coordination of the functioning of various units; on the distribution of powers between the heads of divisions; about the structure of the organization when the external environment changes.
3. In the process of staff motivation, the following decisions are made: on the needs of subordinates; about meeting their needs; performance of subordinates and their job satisfaction.
4. In the process of control, the following decisions are made: on measuring the results of work; on the evaluation of these results; how the goals of the organization have been achieved; about adjusting goals.
The versatility of the classification of management decisions. Ur are controlling, informing),
by organization (individual, collegiate (group) and corporate),
for reasons (situational, by prescription, program, initiative, seasonal),
by repeatability of execution (of the same type, heterogeneous and innovative (no alternatives),
by the scale of impact (general and private),
by mode of action (strategic, tactical, operational, operational),
according to the forecast (with the definition of the result, with a probabilistic outcome),
by the nature of development and implementation (balanced, impulsive, inert, risky, cautious),
on information processing methods (algorithmic, heuristic),
by the number of criteria (single-criteria, multi-criteria),
in the direction of impact (internal and external),
by the depth of impact (single-level and multi-level),
by the object of influence (one performer, group of performers, machine, mechanism),
by resource limits (with and without limits)
According to the method of fixation (written, oral),
novelty().
Conceptual models of management trade organizations. The model is a simplification of a real life situation; representation of an object in some specific form; an ordered set of assumptions about some complex system.
Requirements for the model of the management decision-making process.
The use of simulation makes it possible to qualitatively and quantitatively assess the situation that has arisen. The use of models, on the one hand, makes it possible for men to use their experience and knowledge, and on the other hand, to control the situation that has arisen. It is impossible to shift the adoption of decisions only to the situation models embedded in the computer, because they wear a recommended character. The computer cannot measure changes in the external environment. If in the process of analyzing the situation, additional factors that were not previously taken into account are found, it is necessary to refine the model used accordingly. When making particularly important decisions, several independent models can be used, which will describe the situation from different angles. The greatest effect is given by a combination of experience, knowledge and intuition on the one hand, and on the other hand - the technology of making a decision
The main stages of the process of building a model.
Model formation.
Adequacy of the decision situation model.
There are a number of reasons for using a model instead of trying to interact directly with the real world:
ü the complexity of the real world (the real world of the organization is extremely complex and the actual number of changes related to a particular problem significantly exceeds the capabilities of any person and can be comprehended by simplifying the real world with the help of modeling);
ü experimentation (there are many management situations in which it is desirable to try and experimentally test alternative solutions to a problem. Certain experiments in the real world can and should be performed. When Boeing designs a new aircraft, they always make a sample, check it in real conditions and only then begin full-scale production.
ü Orientation of management to the future (it is impossible to observe a phenomenon that does not yet exist and may never take place, as well as to conduct direct experiments.
Classification of models of the process of making managerial decisions.
1) Model "org-tion-community"
2) The model of the nature of org-tion (any org-tion develops according to its own laws) 3) The model "org-tion-machine" (org-tion is an impersonal mechanism)
4) Socio-technical model (the technology of the production process is put in the first place)
5) Institutional model (organizations are formed under the influence of traditions) 6) Conflict model (opposite goals and interests collide and oppose each other inside the organization. Depending on the adaptation of the organization to the external environment, there are 2 types of management: - mechanistic (conservative structure (non-ism), clearly defined standardized tasks, resistance to change, power stems from hierarchical levels in the organization (people are subordinate not to the individual, but to the position), hierarchical control system, command type of communications (communications are added horizontally "leader- subordinates", the content of communications: decision-making by the management, orders, orders); -organistic type of management (flexible structure, dynamic, not rigidly defined tasks, readiness for change, power is based on knowledge and experience (subordination of the personality), self-control , multidirectional communications (both vertical and horizontal), content of communications: information and advice
7) Process model (community develops as a continuous process)
8) Target model (the main direction of the activities of the organization is the achievement of certain goals)
9) Problem model (the survival of an organization depends on the effectiveness of solving the problems it faces)
10) Inductive model (from particular to general, based on generalization of observations by single factors)
11) Deductive model (from abstract ideas to reality contact)
12) Single purpose model,
13) Multipurpose model
14) Single period
15) Multi-period (integrated approach)
Expert modeling and features of its application in trade and services
The variety of solutions is a certain complex, the understanding of which is facilitated on the basis of a systematic approach, which makes it possible to reveal a rigorous system of solutions. In such a system of decisions should appear as common signs, as well as specific features inherent in certain types solutions.
The most general classification of problems is the classification proposed by G. Simon, according to which all problems are divided into three classes:
1) Well-structured or quantified problems in which the essential dependencies are clarified so well that they can be expressed in numbers or symbols, receiving, in the end, numerical estimates;
2) Unstructured or qualitatively expressed problems containing only a description of the most important resources, features and characteristics, the quantitative relationships between which are completely unknown;
3) Loosely structured or mixed problems that contain both qualitative and quantitative elements, with the qualitative, obscure and uncertain aspects of the problems tending to dominate.
Another possible classification is presented in Table. 1.2.
Table 1.2
| Management decisions | |
| By functional orientation | Planning Organizational Activating Coordinating Controlling Informing |
| By organization | Individual Collegiate Corporate |
| End of table 1.2. | |
| For reasons | Unexpected: situational and initiative Planned: by prescription, programmatic, seasonal |
| According to the degree of repeatability | Traditional Non-traditional Innovative |
| By scale of impact | General Private |
| By time of action | Strategic Tactical Operational |
| By implementation time | Long-term Medium-term Short-term |
| By the nature of development and implementation | Balanced Impulsive Inert Risky Cautious |
| By processing methods | Algorithmic Heuristic |
| According to the number of criteria | Single-criteria Multi-criteria |
| In the direction of impact | External Internal |
| According to the forms of application | Sole Collegial |
| By sphere of influence | Global Local |
| According to the method of fixation | Written Oral |
| Nature of Information | Deterministic Probabilistic |
Let's consider the classification in more detail.
Functional orientation determined common function management, which initiates the development of management decisions. Solutions can be developed for the implementation of planned activities - planning decisions. These decisions define the necessary parameters for a strategic or tactical planning organization's activities. A large group of management decisions is devoted to organizational problems of managing an organization (for example, improving organizational structure control) - are organizational management decisions. For effective management personnel develop solutions on various aspects of revitalizing the activities of employees of the organization - These are activating management decisions. Coordinating Management Decisions necessary to harmonize the changing conditions of external and internal environment to ensure coordination in the activities of the organization, (for example, decisions related to changes in the organization's purchasing and marketing policy, changes in staffing). Controlling management decisions are aimed at ensuring timely implementation production plans and planned development milestones (for example, decisions on the methodology for conducting internal audit, accounting and control of execution of orders). Informative management decisions aimed at streamlining the information field for employees of the organization and providing them with the necessary information (for example, information mail head of the organization to the staff with a message about his trip to the economic forum in Davos).
The process of organizing the development and reorganization of management decisions is based on the choice of priority in an individual or collegial (group) approach. An individual approach to the development of management decisions is very typical for organizations. This approach requires the leader to be self-confident, professional and creative. It takes less time to develop such solutions. The developer of this type of solution is personally responsible for the results of its implementation. The group approach to the development of management decisions is characterized by greater validity, the development of original approaches, and the involvement of developers in its implementation. This approach increases the solution preparation time. This approach limits the freedom of choice of management decisions for managers and requires maintaining a balance of interests of specialists involved in its development. Solutions are called corporate, which are taken both by individuals and collectively (i.e. part of the decision is made individual).
The reasons influencing the development of management decisions are very diverse, but come down to two groups: unexpected and planned. Unexpected managerial decisions include situational and initiative ones, and planned ones include prescription, program and seasonal decisions. Situational decisions are triggered by events that can disrupt the planned course of an organization's activities. Decisions of this type refer to the day-to-day decisions of the manager. Initiative decisions are the creative contribution of the leader to the activities of the organization within the framework of the authority given to him. These decisions should complement the main decisions of senior managers - in functional responsibilities subordinate manager and are determined by the relevant regulations. Program management decisions are program-targeted technological process, according to which the manager at a given time must decide on the further work of his unit, replenishment of resources, etc. Seasonal management decisions, which are more stable in time than program ones, are associated with calendar dates (for example, by spring - preparation of a vacation schedule, by autumn, decisions to carry out work on warming rooms, etc.).
The repeatability of the implementation of management decisions is important for the correct setting of the standard of manageability in the organization. Traditional Solutions- These are solutions that have been encountered earlier in management practice. In this case, it is only necessary to make a choice from the already available alternatives. . non-traditional are called such solutions, for the solution of which it is necessary to search for new alternatives. Innovative Solutions usually relate to the process of restructuring and reforming an organization to increase its competitiveness - these are complex solutions and their labor intensity is even higher than that of non-traditional ones.
The scale of the impact of management decisions can be limited to one person, one team, or the entire team of the organization. Each decision has a target orientation, which determines the objects of management decisions. If decisions are developed for mandatory execution by all personnel, such decisions are called general. A private solution is called designed for one person(for example, it is unethical to reprimand an employee with the obligatory familiarization of all employees of the organization, but it is advisable to bring gratitude to the employee to the attention of all employees).
The duration of a decision is determined by its importance. Allocate strategic, tactical and operational management decisions. Strategic Decisions are developed for a long period (5 ... 10 years) covering key strategic decisions and developed for a shorter period (1 ... 3 years) with a grip on some of the key elements of the organization. Operational decisions are developed when possible or when situations arise that change the course of implementation of tactical decisions. Operational management decisions are short-term.
There are long-term, medium-term and short-term solutions in terms of implementation. The results of the implementation of promising long-term solutions can be for several years. If, however, between the adoption of a decision and the completion of its implementation, there will be a relatively short term- the decision will be short-term.
The nature of the development and implementation of management decisions is highly dependent on personal characteristics person. They can be divided into the following groups: balanced, impulsive, inert, risky, cautious. Balanced decisions are made by people who are attentive and critical of their actions, put forward hypotheses and their testing. Such people usually have a formulated idea before making a decision. Impulsive decisions are made by managers who easily generate a wide variety of ideas in unlimited quantities, but are not able to properly test, refine and evaluate them. The decision in this case is insufficiently substantiated and reliable, i.e. taken in bursts. Inert solutions are the result of a careful search. They are dominated by control and clarifying actions over the generation of ideas; it is difficult to detect originality, brilliance, and innovation in such decisions. They weakly activate the staff for their implementation. Risky decisions are made without justification for actions by a leader who is confident in his abilities. Typically, such leaders have good rears in the form of constantly supporting their superiors or subordinates. They are not afraid of any danger. Cautious decisions are characterized by the thoroughness of the manager's assessment of all options, a supercritical approach to business, and a large number of approvals.
According to the methods of information processing, decisions are divided into algorithmic and heuristic. Algorithmic solutions involve a strict formalization of the implementation of procedures and operations based on rules, algorithms, formulas, statistical data (for example, the calculation of the economic efficiency of a new production should be carried out according to the developed algorithms). But in management, not everything can be quantified. Something is valued qualitatively. You can process and evaluate information based on intuition, generalizations, ideas, experience, associations. Through conversation, discussion, asking leading questions, you can get new information from the client, partner. Such solutions are called heuristic.
Determining the number of criteria for evaluating options (alternatives) of management decisions is a difficult task. The criteria can be such parameters as comfort in the workplace: light, heat, etc. Simple management decisions are usually compared according to one criterion and are called single-criteria, while complex ones are compared according to several and are called, respectively, multi-criteria.
According to the direction of influence, management decisions are divided into decisions aimed at internal or external environment organizations, i.e. internal and external solutions .
According to the form of making managerial decisions, they can be individual and collegial.. Sole decisions are decisions made by one person. Group or collective decisions are called collegial (under conditions market relations more and more situations and problems arise, the solution of which requires complex analysis, i.e. participation of a group of specialists).
According to the sphere of influence, management decisions are divided into global and local. Decisions that affect one or more departments of the organization are called local, and decisions that affect the organization as a whole are called global.
The method of fixing managerial decisions can be oral or written.. Managers provide written decisions for legal examination and further for execution. Oral management decisions also have legal force, and they can be challenged in court if there are at least two people who have heard these decisions.
Depending on the degree of completeness and reliability of the information that the manager has, managerial decisions can be deterministic (taken under conditions of certainty) or probabilistic (taken under conditions of uncertainty and risk). Deterministic decisions are made in the presence of complete reliable information regarding the problem being solved (for example, the decision to release a new type of product assumes that the manager knows (in the short term) the level of production, since the cost of rent, building materials and work force can be calculated accurately). Decisions made under risk include information about the problem, you can try to get additional information and re-analyze the problem in order to reduce its novelty and complexity. When there is not enough time and / or funds, then the collection additional information, when making decisions you have to rely on past experience and intuition.
The composition, structure, content and form of management decisions are determined by the specified principles and classification features.
The main requirements for management decisions and ensuring the reasonable efficiency of their implementation and understanding by the performers are feasibility (reality); timeliness; consistency (interconnection with other solutions); rationality (efficiency, optimality); legitimacy (validity); authority (compliance with the level of rights); consistency; continuity (connection with previous decisions); simplicity; clarity; brevity of presentation.
If the management decision is considered as a result management activities, then the process of obtaining it represents the actual management activity itself. Naturally, as in any activity, the basis is the technology of its implementation.
The main means of management activity that determine the technology for its implementation are Information Systems, including information support, organizational management techniques, conditions for management activities (organization, jobs) and, of course, professional, business, socio-psychological and other personal qualities of the subject of activity.
Management decision- this is the choice of the goal of management and the values of controlled factors that ensure the achievement of this goal.
A solution belongs to a certain type if it has some common feature that is characteristic of a certain set of solutions.
By degree of development distinguish programmed and non-programmed solutions.
Programmed decisions are made as a result of a certain sequence of steps according to standard methods or rules that are developed in advance and applied in typical situations. Non-programmed decisions require the development of new procedures or decision rules. Leaders of organizations are forced to make unprogrammed decisions in new or unique problem situations. In these cases, there is no specific sequence of necessary actions to solve the problem.
By degree of justification there are intuitive, logical and rational solutions.
Intuitive decisions are made by people based on the feeling that they are correct. At the same time, the decision maker deliberately does not compare all the advantages and disadvantages of each alternative with each other. In this case, the decision is made subconsciously, without explicit logical justification. Logical decisions are made based on knowledge, experience and logical judgments. When making logical decisions, people turn to experience and common sense to use them to predict the possible consequences of alternatives and justify their actions in a particular situation. Rational Decisions are based on an objective analysis of complex problem situations using scientific methods and computer technology. Rational decisions are considered the most reasonable, since in the process of their development and adoption, all mechanisms available to a person are used - intuition, logic and calculation.
On the basis of the possibility of implementation There are two types of solutions - admissible and inadmissible.
Valid Solutions are solutions that satisfy all constraints and can be implemented in practice. Decisions are always made under conditions of objective limitations - resource, time, legal, organizational, ethical, etc. It is within the limits of the given restrictions that the area of acceptable options for action is formed. Invalid solutions - unrealistic solutions that do not satisfy one or more constraints
According to the degree of achievement of the goal: unreasonable, satisfactory and optimal solutions.
Unwise Decisions- these are unacceptable decisions or decisions that do not lead to the achievement of the control goal. Satisfactory decisions are those actions that lead to the achievement of the goal of managing the organization. These solutions satisfy all objective and subjective constraints at the same time and provide an acceptable, but not necessarily the best result. Optimal decisions are the decisions of the leader that provide the maximum degree of achievement of the management goal. These are the best compromises as a result of careful analysis.
On the basis of innovation: routine, selective, adaptive and innovative solutions.
routine decisions are well-known methods of action to resolve a problem that has arisen. They represent a standard response to a typical situation. Selective decisions involve choosing one alternative from a specific set of courses of action. Adaptive decisions are made in conditions when the situation changes and therefore some modification is required. known options taking into account the peculiarities of the new situation. Innovative solutions are taken in conditions when the problem cannot be solved using known methods of action and requires the development of fundamentally new solutions that have not been used before.
By scale of change introduced into the organization: situational and reorganizational. Situational solutions do not provide for any global changes and are related to solving the current problems of the organization. Reorganizational decisions involve significant changes, such as organizational restructuring or selection new strategy organizations.
By time of action allocate strategic, tactical and operational decisions. Strategic decisions are aimed at achieving the long-term goals of the organization. Tactical decisions ensure the fulfillment of the strategic and medium-term goals of the organization. Operational decisions are made by leaders on a daily basis to achieve short-term goals and carry out ongoing work in the organization.
The content of the solution is divided permissive, prohibitive and constructive. Allowing and forbidding decisions are managerial decisions of the "yes" or "no" type, which simply give "okay" or impose a ban on certain proposals for solving the problem. In these cases, the leader himself does not offer anything, but acts only as a judge, accepting or rejecting the ideas of other people. Constructive solutions are proposed by the head independently and reflect his active position in relation to the problem being solved.
According to the number of persons involved in decision-making are divided - individual and collective. Individual decisions are made by the head of the organization alone. The head of the organization has the right to submit any decisions for discussion in the group, consult with his subordinates, involve experts and analysts in solving the problem, but he makes the final decision on his own. Collective decisions are the result of the joint intellectual work of a group of people. Such decisions are made taking into account the interests and positions of all members of the group.
Management decisions are divided into types depending on the scope of the organization: production decisions (choice of production technology), marketing solutions(selection of a market segment), financial decisions (selection of the optimal portfolio valuable papers), personnel decisions (selection and placement of personnel) and many others .
In the process of managing organizations, it is accepted great amount a wide variety of solutions with different characteristics. Nevertheless, there are some general signs that allow this set to be conditionally divided into types in a certain way, i.e. classify.
Building any classification is determined primarily by the position of the author and the set of features underlying it, therefore there are different approaches to the classification of management decisions . It is only important to observe a few generally accepted requirements classification criteria, the most important of which are: materiality; constancy; observability.
Classification of management decisions:
Economic Solutions aimed at improving the efficiency of activities (the ratio of economic results and costs), the formation and distribution of income of the organization. Examples economic decisions: decisions on the distribution of profits, on changing the volume and structure of products, improving their quality.
Organizational decisions represent a way to implement organizational impact, which has as its task the ordering of the system, i.e. bringing the structure and methods of its internal and external relations in line with the goals of management. Within organizational decisions, there are decisions on the organization of a particular process or its execution (for example, decisions on the delegation of rights, duties and responsibilities); regulatory decisions; decisions on rationalization, improvement, restructuring and development of the system; solutions for designing new systems.
Technical solutions associated with the creation and implementation of new technology, the construction of industrial and non-industrial premises, etc.
Technological solutions are aimed at introducing advanced manufacturing technologies and replacing outdated technological processes.
Social Solutions are a tool for staff development, improvement social structure team (gender, age, educational, etc.).
By functional orientation- planning decisions are developed for the implementation of planned activities, they determine the necessary parameters for the strategic, tactical and operational planning; organizational solutions are aimed at solving organizational problems in the managed system; activating solutions are developed for effective management of employees, to enhance their activities; coordinating decisions are applied to harmonize the changing conditions of the external and internal environment; controlling decisions are used to ensure the timely implementation of the planned activities and control the execution of orders; informing solutions are designed to provide employees with the information they need.
By the nature (significance) of goals -- strategic defining general tasks; tactical, in which more specific tasks are developed aimed at implementing a previously developed strategy; operational aimed at the implementation of priority, momentary tasks.
By time period(duration of implementation) -- promising(long-term - over 5 years), designed for a long period of time; current(medium-term - from 1 year to 5 years), which are part, detailing and refinement of promising; adjusting(short-term - up to 1 year), aimed at ensuring the implementation of strategic and current decisions.
By development methods -- formalized (quantitative), in the justification of which mathematical methods are widely used (as a rule, these are routine, repetitive decisions made according to a predetermined algorithm); not formalized (heuristic), which are justified mainly by heuristic methods (new, atypical situations and non-standard problems that require intellectual abilities, talent and personal initiative of managers).
Terms in which decisions are developed - decisions made in the conditions certainty(they tend to be well structured (deterministic)); decisions made under conditions risk and related to the category of probabilistic; decisions made under conditions uncertainty related to the category of search engines; decisions made under conditions opposition(conflict) and related to "game" problems.
By the degree of formalization of the problem it is necessary to distinguish between programmed, partially programmed and non-programmed decisions. These solutions correspond to well-structured, weakly structured and unstructured problems.
Structurization is understood as the possibility of quantitative expression of dependencies between the elements of the situation.
Well-structured problems are those in which the dependencies between the elements of the situation can receive numerical values or symbols. When solving well-structured problems, quantitative methods of analysis are used (from elementary arithmetic operations to linear, nonlinear, dynamic programming, queuing theory, game theory).
Programmed decision is the result of the implementation of a certain sequence of steps or actions, similar to those taken in solving a mathematical equation. At the same time, the number of possible alternatives is limited (up to the presence of one solution).
Unstructured (or qualitatively expressed) problems contain only descriptions of the most important resources, features and characteristics, the quantitative relationships between which are completely unknown.
Unprogrammed decisions have to be taken in new, often unexpected conditions.
By way of preparation and decision making subdivided into individual, group and collective. An individual approach to decision-making is preferable in conditions of time pressure. At the same time, an important advantage of group and collective decisions is the ability to take into account experience and knowledge different people. The problem is only in the competence of decision makers. By virtue of this, the decision on technical re-equipment will be individual or group, and the decision on the distribution of the profits of the enterprise must be collective. Decisions related to a radical change in the organization must be made collectively.
A variety of group decisions are collegial (decisions of councils, boards). Collegiate and collective form decision-making reduce the efficiency of management and complicate the determination of responsibility for its results, however, they prevent gross errors and abuses and increase the validity of the choice, subject to the professionalism of decision makers.
By legal arrangement decisions can be in the form of a plan, order, order, instruction, etc.
Correctly classified management decision gives the decision maker the opportunity to correctly answer the following questions:
- - What is the timeframe for making a decision?
- - who has the authority to make the decision;
- - what methods of information processing to use when making a decision;
- - how many criteria to choose to evaluate alternative options.
Based on the results of answers to these questions, restrictions are determined when making a decision: terms, number of criteria, method of fixing, etc.
Model -- it is an image of a real object (process) in a material or ideal form (described by symbolic means or in any language), reflecting the essential properties of the modeled object (process) and replacing it in the course of research and management.
The main characteristic of the model can be considered a simplification of the real life situation to which it refers. Because the form of the model is less complex, and because irrelevant data that obscures the problem in real life is eliminated, the model often enhances the manager's ability to understand and resolve problems that confront him. The model also helps the manager to combine his experience and judgment with the experience and judgment of experts.
There are a number reasons for using the model instead of trying to interact directly with the real world:
- 1) The complexity of organizational situations. Like all schools of management, management science strives to be useful in solving real world organizational problems. It may seem strange that human capabilities increase when interacting with reality using its model. But this is true because the real world of an organization is extremely complex and the actual number of variables relevant to a particular problem is far beyond the capabilities of any person, and can only be comprehended by simplifying the real world with the help of modeling.
- 2) The impossibility of conducting experiments. There are many managerial situations in which it is necessary to test and experimentally test alternative solutions to the problem. Of course, company executives would be wrong to invest millions of dollars in a new product without experimentally establishing that the result of its introduction to the market will be as intended and likely to be accepted by consumers. Certain experiments in the real world can and should take place. When designing complex, high-tech products, a sample must be made, then tested in real conditions, and only then can its full-scale production be possible. But direct experimentation of this type is costly and time consuming. This is where models come to the rescue.
In addition, there are countless critical situations where you need to make a decision, but you can not experiment in real life.
3) Orientation of management to the future. It is impossible to observe a phenomenon that does not yet exist and may never exist. Modeling is the only systematic way to date to see futures and determine the potential consequences of alternative solutions, allowing them to be compared objectively.
Model types. There are currently many used modern organizations models, as well as the tasks for which they are most suitable, however, three basic types of models can be distinguished. It's about about physical, analog and mathematical models.
Physical model represents what is being explored with the help of an enlarged or reduced description of an object or system.
analog model represents the object under study as an analogue that behaves like a real object, but does not look like one. The graph illustrating the relationship between output and costs is an analog model.
AT mathematical model, also called symbolic, symbols are used to describe properties or characteristics of an object or event. An example of a mathematical model and its analytical power as a means to help us understand exceptionally complex problems is Einstein's famous formula E = mc 2 .
Main models used for development of management decisions. There is a huge variety of specific models used to develop management decisions. Their number is as great as the number of problems they were designed to solve.
AT general view as part of economic and mathematical models the following can be distinguished:
- - linear programming models;
- - optimal economic and mathematical models (simulation models, network planning and management models);
- - models for analyzing the dynamics of economic processes;
- - models for forecasting economic processes (trend models based on growth curves, adaptive forecasting models);
- - balance models;
- - econometric models;
- - other applied models of economic processes (supply and demand model, inventory management models, queuing theory models, game theory models).
Most often in management practice, game theory models, queuing theory models, inventory management models, simulation models, economic models, linear programming models are used.
Game theory models. One of the most important variables on which the success of an organization depends is competitiveness. Obviously, the ability to predict the actions of competitors means an advantage for any organization. Game theory is a method of modeling impact decision on competitors. Game theory was originally developed by the military so that the strategy could take into account the possible actions of the enemy. In business, game models are used to predict how competitors will react to price changes, new sales campaigns, value-added service offerings, and product upgrades and introductions.
Models of queuing theory are used to determine the optimal number of service channels in relation to the need for them. Situations in which queuing theory models can be useful include waiting for a free cashier by bank customers, a queue of trucks for unloading at a warehouse.
Inventory management models are used to determine the time of placing orders for resources and their quantity, as well as the mass finished products in warehouses. Every organization must maintain some level of inventory to avoid delays in production and distribution. The purpose of this model is to minimize negative consequences accumulation of stocks, which are expressed in certain costs.
Simulation modeling. All the models described above imply the use of imitation in a broad sense, since they are all substitutes for reality. However, as a modeling technique, simulation specifically refers to the process of creating a model and applying it experimentally to determine changes in a real situation. Simulation is often a very practical way of substituting a model in place of a real system or prototype. By experimenting on a system model, you can determine how it will respond to certain changes or events, if there is no possibility to observe this system in reality. If the results of experimentation using a simulation model indicate that the modification leads to an improvement, the manager can more confidently make a decision to implement changes in the real system.
Economic analysis. Almost all managers perceive imitation as a modeling method. However, many of them never thought that economic analysis - apparently the most common method - is also a form of model building. Economic analysis incorporates almost all methods for assessing costs and economic benefits, as well as the relative profitability of an enterprise. A typical economic model is based on a break-even analysis, a decision-making method that determines the point at which total revenue equalizes total costs, i.e. the point at which the business becomes profitable.
Optimal linear programming. A necessary condition for an optimal approach to planning and management (the principle of optimality) is flexibility, the alternativeness of production and economic situations in which planning and management decisions have to be made. It is these situations that, as a rule, constitute the daily practice of an economic entity (the choice production program, attaching to suppliers, routing, cutting materials, preparing mixtures, etc.).
The essence of the principle of optimality is the desire to choose such a planning and management decision X = (x 1 , X 2 ,..., X n ), where X j , (j = 1, n) -- its components, which would best take into account the internal capabilities and external conditions of the production activity of an economic entity.
The words "in the best way" here mean the choice of some criterion of optimality, i.e. some economic indicator, which allows to compare the effectiveness of certain planning and management decisions. The traditional optimality criteria are “maximum profit”, “minimum costs”, “maximum profitability”, etc.
Classification of management decisions:
1. According to the degree of influence on the future of the organization:
A) strategic (determine the general directions of development of the organization and its long-term goals)
B) tactical (specific methods to achieve the first)
2.by scale:
A) global - cover the entire organization as a whole
B) local - affect some aspects of the enterprise.
3. by the duration of the implementation period:
A) long-term (more than five years)
B) medium-term (from 1 year to 5 years)
C) short-term (less than 1 year)
4. according to the direction of impact:
A) external
B) internal
5. according to the obligation to fulfill:
A) directive - are accepted by top management and are mandatory for execution
B) orienting - determine a single direction of activity of the subsystems of the organization
6.by function:
A) regulatory - determine the method of performing actions
B) coordinating - concentrate efforts around the problem
C) controlling - aimed at evaluating the results
7.by breadth of coverage:
A) general - apply to the entire company
B) special - consider individual issues
8. according to the degree of programming:
A) programmed - accepted in standard situations
B) unprogrammed - accepted in new conditions
9. by area of implementation: scientific and marketing research, production.
10.According to the ways of making:
A) intuitive - are accepted by the manager based on his ability to foresee the results
B) adaptive - taken in accordance with the professional and personal knowledge of the leader
C) rational - based on scientific analysis Problems.
At the core decisions based on judgment knowledge, meaningful experience of the past and common sense. Typical for operational management.
Rational Decisions based on methods economic analysis, substantiation and optimization. Characteristic for strategic and tactical management.
A manager who focuses only on intuition becomes a hostage to chance, and his chances of right choice decisions are not very high.
Management decisions are made by people, and therefore their nature largely depends on the personality of the manager directly involved in their development.
Balanced Decisions accepts a manager who is attentive and critical of his actions, put forward hypotheses and their testing.
impulsive decisions are characteristic of a manager who easily generates a wide variety of ideas in unlimited quantities, but is not able to properly verify, clarify, and evaluate them.
Inert solutions is the result of a careful search for a manager. In them, clarifying and controlling actions prevail over the generation of ideas, where it is difficult to detect originality, innovation, brilliance.
If the manager does not need a thorough substantiation of his hypotheses, is confident in himself, then he may not be afraid of any difficulties and accept risky decisions.
Cautious Decisions appear when the manager carefully evaluates all options, approaches the matter critically. Solutions are not new and original.
Algorithm for making managerial decisions.
Decision development algorithm - a logical sequence of operations for the development of a management decision. Decision making algorithm in traditional management
Such an algorithm may include the following operations:
- problem detection;
- collection of information;
- information analysis;
- determination of management objectives in solving the problem;
- development of a criterion for the effectiveness of the solution;
- identification of a problem with a previous one in this or another organization;
- the study of techniques and their consequences used in solving a similar problem;
- forecasting by analogy with the previously observed consequences of using the studied techniques (when forecasting by analogy, it is believed that the use of those
- the same techniques will lead to the same, similar results as in the previous case);
- evaluation of solutions;
- adoption, execution, communication to the executors of the decision, its execution and, finally, control over the implementation of decisions.
Delegation of powers in the decision-making process.
In a dynamic business environment, it is impossible to do without delegating authority to other employees.
Sooner or later, there comes a moment when all the ways to optimize your time have been exhausted, the process is out of control - you urgently need to delegate part of your functions and powers!
For the optimal solution of this problem, ten principles of delegation have been developed.
clear final goal
Managers must clearly state the results they expect from the empowered subordinate. A clear understanding of what is to be achieved and why it is important is a necessary prerequisite for delegation with simultaneous empowerment.
We cannot work, study, or perform any other activity until we are aware of the goals and consequences of our activities.
Delegation of authority should be comprehensive
In addition to the desired end results, the manager needs to clearly define the conditions under which the task must be performed.
manager must set clear deadlines and reporting schedule.
the manager must clearly set the limits in which the employee can show own initiative.
The levels of manifestation of initiative differ depending on the degree of control over the timing and scope of the task:
A. Wait for instructions on what to do. You take certain actions only after you receive the appropriate command. This form of delegation is least related to the granting of rights, since it does not allow the subordinate to exercise his own initiative. In this case, there is no need to control the timing (when completed) or the amount of work done (what is done).
B. Ask what to do. Subordinates are given some freedom in deciding on the timing of the assignment, but not on its content. Subordinates can formulate their ideas about how best to complete the task, however, since they cannot take action without the manager's approval, their scope of authority is extremely limited.
C. Get recommendations, then take action. This option gives subordinates more rights, since in this case they get some freedom in setting the timing and content of the task delegated to them.
D. Complete the task and immediately report the results. Subordinates are given the right to be guided by their own initiative, but they are required to report their actions to the manager so that he can make sure that the decisions they make are correct and do not contradict other tasks of the organization.
D. Get down to business, and report only as planned. Subordinates themselves control both the timing and the volume and content of the assigned task.
Invite the employee to participate in the consideration of the issue of delegation of authority
Establish parity between rights and responsibilities
most famous and general principle delegation of authority. In order for subordinates to succeed, they should be provided with all the rights necessary to perform the task assigned to them.
In no case should a manager give subordinates excessive rights, that is, give them excessive power, freedom, resources and information. Such a discrepancy leads to a decrease in the level of responsibility, abuse of authority. The manager can assign primary responsibility to subordinates, that is, responsibility for short-term (intermediate) results. They will bear this responsibility to the manager who has delegated the appropriate authority to them.
Work within the existing organizational structure
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