Moscow State University of Printing Arts. Manufacturing

Modern man is a consumer of not only goods, but also services. The development of the non-productive sphere is the most important indicator in the economy of any state.

What is the non-manufacturing sector?

This concept refers to all economic sectors that satisfy the non-material needs of people in society. These needs include organizing, redistributing and using material assets, spiritual benefits, the development of different aspects of the personality, as well as health care. The non-productive sphere meets the social needs of society and each individual in it.

This includes the concept of "spiritual production". This term was introduced by Karl Marx, who understood it as the production of skills, habits, ideas, artistic images and values. The non-manufacturing sector also includes industries that are engaged in the production of services.

The difference between a service and a product

A person is an object of labor for employees of an enterprise that provides services. A commodity is an item or thing endowed with certain properties. It was obtained as a result of work done in the past. The service has only beneficial features, not attached to a material carrier, and is the result of labor in the present. The service sells the employee of the company who provides it, it cannot change its owner, unlike the product. Services have no cost. However, they have a price, which is determined by the value of the worker's ability to work and the

The non-production sphere is based on the material base. Without material production, it could not exist. After all, services are ultimately exchanged for goods. The workers involved in material production also provide for the maintenance of those who work in the service sector.

Branches of the non-manufacturing sphere

Sociologists identify 15 industries:

sales (commerce);
public catering;
household services: home care, repairs and custom-made various groups goods, personal hygiene;
school and preschool education;
the medicine;
social service;
recreational services;
maintenance of cultural institutions;
Information Support;
finance and insurance;
legal support of citizens;
services of legal and notary offices;
connection;
transport support.

Often, enterprises are engaged in the provision of several different industries at once.

The non-production sphere, together with all its institutions and enterprises providing material services, together constitutes a social infrastructure.

There are also industries related to the service sector that serve large social strata:

management of state organizations;
secondary, primary, higher education;
the science;
state security bodies;
public associations.

Relationship with productive labor

The non-productive sphere does not create new value. However, this does not mean that such work is useless for society. Material production underlies the non-productive industries, which are a superstructure to the material ones and cannot exist without them.

It is not created by the non-productive sphere, since it focuses on the comprehensive spiritual development of a person, his state of health, etc. Nevertheless, it can affect productivity, improve the skills of personnel, that is, it indirectly affects the national income of the state.

Situation in modern Russia

The non-productive sphere of the economy is a reflection of the needs of society and changes in their structure depending on the standard of living of citizens. AT modern Russia more than 30% of the population works in this area.

The non-production sphere in our country is characterized by territorial differentiation in terms of its level of development. Such differences are inherent when comparing both individual regions and federal districts. Territorial differentiation - one of the reasons It arose in the 60s of the last century.

The centers of the non-productive sphere have a hierarchy:

Moscow.
Central cities of subjects of the federation.
regional centers.
Centers of rural settlements.
rural settlements.

Organizations engaged in recreational and sanatorium services have their own specifics of territorial distribution. They depend on the location of the natural and socio-economic base. Therefore, two largest center- North Caucasian and Black Sea.

The non-productive sphere is represented in the economy by industries that are engaged in meeting the cultural and spiritual needs of a person. It is closely connected with material production and strongly depends on it. In our country, the branches of non-material production are characterized by territorial differentiation.

a) Features of services

Features of the organization of the production of services are due to the following properties:

Contact with the consumer and participation of the client;

Combining the stages of customer satisfaction and service provision;

The impossibility of storing the service;

Variability in demand for services;

Heterogeneity of the final result;

Heterogeneity of requirements for the nature and content labor process;

Intangibility of the service for the client;

Difficulty in guaranteeing the quality of the service;

Difficulty in assessing labor productivity and service delivery efficiency.

Contact with the consumer and participation of the client in the process of providing the service. By its nature, service involves a greater degree of contact with the consumer than material production. This is the most important difference between the production of services and the production of tangible goods.

The production of material products allows for a separation between production and consumption, and the customer is not directly involved in the production process. Therefore, production can be located far from the client, which increases the choice of working methods, scheduling and control over production.

A service, by definition, is a process in which a customer is involved. Service is carried out in direct contact with the client and is therefore more limited in the choice of possible options for performing work. Moreover, often consumers are an integral part of the service system. In this regard, the service is designed taking into account the impact of the client on the process of its provision. The staff is in contact with the client, which requires him to have not only professional and technological skills, but also the art of communication.

Exclusion of the client from the service process allows you to unify the process and increase the efficiency of its production. Therefore, in modern system service, there is a trend towards the introduction of remote service using technical means communications. For example, taking orders via the Internet, remote monitoring of the patient's condition, using ATMs, accepting payments, etc.

Regulation of the degree of customer participation in the business process allows companies to receive competitive advantage. Therefore, traditional retail stores have been replaced by self-service stores, in which the customer acts as an employee. trading floor, independently selecting and transporting the goods.

Combining the stages of customer satisfaction and service provision. Any business can be represented as three stages: production - sale - consumption. In the production of material products, they are separated from each other, and the client is not a participant in the production process. When providing services, these stages may coincide in space and time. For example, in a restaurant, production, sale and consumption are carried out simultaneously in the presence of the client; and in the studio and the store, the stages of sale and consumption can be combined.

In the manufacturing sector, work with the product is concentrated in the subdivisions of the processing subsystem of the operating system without the presence of the client. In the service sector, activities for their provision are present in all departments, including the provision and management subsystems. In the process of consuming most services, in contrast to the consumption of tangible products, customers are directly at the place of their provision: in the office, restaurant hall, in a surgical operating room, in a train compartment, etc.

Services cannot be stored. In the production of tangible products during a recession, you can accumulate stocks finished products to sell during periods of rising demand, and thus maintain a relatively stable level of utilization production capacity and staff employment.

Services, being a customer satisfaction process, cannot be stockpiled or pre-stocked. In this area, with rare exceptions, it is necessary to meet demand at the moment of its occurrence, which can limit the flexibility of the service delivery process and emphasize capacity planning.

Change in demand for services. Any demand is volatile, but the demand for services is characterized by large, complex and rapid fluctuations. The influence of fluctuations in the demand for services, and therefore on the needs for production capacity in service systems, is much stronger than in material production.

The quality of service depends largely on fluctuations in demand. In this regard, when using any service model of work, attention must be paid to its ability to respond to short-term changes in demand.

The participation of the client in the process of providing the service leads to deviations in the time of service for each client. Each of the clients has different needs, a different level of personal experience and may require a different number and quality of contacts. This causes additional fluctuations in capacity utilization and staff employment.

The duration of the service cycle depends on the behavior of the client. Moreover, organizational, technical, climatic, demographic, economic, political and other factors can influence the behavior of the client in the service process, and his behavior affects both short-term and long-term changes in demand. However, these fluctuations are in principle predictable.

Heterogeneity of the final result. The manufacturing process gravitates toward uniformity and efficiency due to the well-defined end product. The activity of the service sector in comparison with it is more uncertain, due to the variability of the final product, due to the dependence on the perception and participation of consumers.

Heterogeneity of requirements for the nature and content of the labor process. The production of services involves a greater variety of activities than is typical. industrial production. Each client is a specific task that must first be diagnosed and then the appropriate action selected. The process of industrial production mainly allows you to control the change in actions. Accordingly, the production requirements for material production will be more uniform than in the service sector.

Due to the spontaneous consumption of services by customers and the variability of actions, the service sector requires a more varied content of labor, while industrial production, with rare exceptions, can be more homogeneous, intensive and mechanized.

The intangibility of the service for the client. The material results of any activity can be tangible (touched), and the process of providing a service is intangible for the client.

Therefore, when designing a service, attention should be paid to the material, tangible environment in which the service takes place, in particular: the location of the service object, its design, appearance and staff speech, smells, etc. These moments should provide the client with the opportunity to correctly understand what kind of service and under what conditions it is provided.

The following problems are caused by the intangibility of a service:

It is difficult to develop a specification (standard) for a service, since clients may understand the “correctness” of its provision in different ways.

It is difficult to achieve a complete understanding of customer needs, and understanding is essential to success.

It is difficult to assess the quality and efficiency of the service.

Difficulty in quality assurance. In the service sector, it is much more difficult to guarantee quality, since production and consumption occur simultaneously. High heterogeneity of actions during maintenance creates an additional risk of reducing product quality. Since the processes of production and consumption coincide in the provision of a service, the quality of the service cannot be checked in advance and it cannot be guaranteed that an error made in the process of the service will be corrected before it is discovered by the client. Therefore, quality at the time of product creation is usually more important for service than for production, where errors can be corrected before the customer receives the product.

Due to the intangibility of the service and the involvement of the client in the process of its provision, it is difficult for the management of the organization to assess its quality. The assessment is influenced by the needs of the client himself and his individual ability to perceive the service. On the other hand, the perception of the quality of the service by the client depends not only on the quality of the developed service process, but also on the quality of work and communication skills of the staff.

The most common methods for assessing the quality of services are questionnaires and interviews with clients. The purpose of the survey is to obtain information about what factors are most important for service consumers. To achieve the required quality of service, it is necessary to carefully design the service, train staff and develop relationships with customers.

Difficulty in assessing labor productivity and service efficiency. Measuring labor productivity in manufacturing is less complex and more accurate than in services. This is due to the fact that products are homogeneous in production, and less homogeneous in the service sector due to fluctuations in consumer demand and requirements that change the content of labor.

Customer involvement in the service delivery process, overlapping production and consumption stages, fluctuations in demand and the inability to use inventory in the performance of the service lead to deviations from planned costs and problems in assessing the effectiveness of services. It is difficult to make an objective assessment of the results of the service and according to the data obtained from customer surveys.

To increase the efficiency of activities in the provision of services, as a rule, an increase in interaction with the consumer is required. However, with the strengthening of interaction with the client, the degree of individualization of the service and its labor intensity increase. Therefore, it is very problematic to provide and unambiguously evaluate the effectiveness of the service.

b) Service Production Organization Models

When organizing a production (operating) system in the service sector, the following models are used:

1. Model of "first-class service"

The term "first-class" service is associated not with the client's assessment of the quality of the service, but with the segment of the expensive services market in which this model is most often used. In this case, an excess resource of production capacity is created so that each client can receive service immediately at the time of contact. The redundancy of the resource causes periodic downtime of equipment, the occurrence of excess stocks of materials, and the unemployment of personnel.

2. Model of "cheap" service

In this model, production capacity is deliberately limited. Customers are forced to stand in line waiting for service. Insufficient capacity makes it possible to reduce costs and manipulate the price of the service.

In this case, it is possible to “store” not the service, but the customers in the queue. The idea of influencing demand is used in order to balance it with the available production capacities. This impact can be carried out by manipulating a long queue or applying a system of discounts or markups during periods of decline or growth in demand, as well as creating an employment infrastructure for the client while waiting in line.

3. Model of "inefficient" service

Its essence lies in the fact that both downtime of excess production capacity and idle time of customers in the queue are periodically observed, which, as a rule, is associated with seasonal fluctuations in demand for services. This is the reason for the inefficiency of this model. However, the "inefficient" service model is the most common and focuses on the average load per year.

To achieve maximum process efficiency in the provision of services, it is recommended to provide 70% capacity utilization. Such capacity, according to Chase R., is sufficient to ensure that the service channels are constantly loaded and have enough time for individual customer service, allows you to have a certain power reserve and manage the process of providing services.

Of course, this capacity utilization rate depends on the service sector. Where the degree of uncertainty and significance of service provision is high, a load of less than 70% is recommended. Provision of services with good predictability of scope or without direct contact with customers allows for planning activities and will approach 100% capacity utilization. These recommendations for the organization of work in the service sector meet the requirements for the organization of material unit production.

In a number of countries, the classification of services has been made on the basis of a sectoral approach and is associated with historically established business practices and issues of state regulation of the service sector. In this case, as in the North American model, based on a number of criteria, there is a list of service activities of the same order or similar in content. Each service is presented in one typological grouping. This list, as a rule, ends with the grouping “other services”, which includes services that are not included in any of the previous units. At the same time, the list of services remains incomplete, open for further replenishment.

A similar scheme for classifying services is also used in Russian business practice, where the all-Russian classifier of services to the population was developed on its basis, and indicators of state statistics are presented*. In this case, the service sector includes the following areas of service activities, which are its most important typological areas:

* See: All-Russian classifier of public services OK002-93. Official edition. M.: Publishing house of standards, 1994.

♦ trade (wholesale and retail);

♦ food and accommodation services (hotels, structures Catering);

♦ transport;

♦ communications and information services;

♦ supply, procurement and storage of material and technical resources;

♦ credit, finance and insurance, real estate transactions;

♦ education, culture and art;

♦ science and scientific service;

♦ healthcare, including physical culture and sports;

♦ household maintenance services (home repair, industrial and household utilities);

♦ personal services (non-production, household, etc.);

♦ services government controlled;

♦ other services.

Comparison of the Russian and North American service classification models shows that the domestic model is more detailed with respect to some types of services and more weakly reflects other types of services. In particular, it does not present services of a market-commercial type, which in this case have to be included in the “other services” group.

This originality was reflected in the statistical collection "Services in Russia" (M., 2000). It contains data on all areas of service activities indicated in the all-Russian classifier in Russian economy for 1998-1999 Along with this, in the additional section "Indicators of development certain types market services” provides detailed statistical data on new services that have not yet been singled out in separate areas, but for the most part appear in a general way in the “other services” grouping. In this case, the collection contains information about:

♦ intermediary services in real estate transactions;

♦ property valuation services;

♦ information and computer services;

♦ activities of gambling establishments*.

* Services sector in Russia: Stat. Sat. / Previous redol. M. N. Sidorov. M.: Goskomstat of Russia, 2000.

AT different countries there are similar, but developed in the service's own practice, groupings of services, which are specified and supplemented in different ways. For example, in some countries, the list of such groupings includes construction, gas supply networks, energy systems, etc., while in other countries these infrastructure elements are classified in statistical reporting as non-service industries.

Along with generally significant groupings that operate in the practice of state accounting and statistics, other classification areas and groups of services are being developed that are convenient for economic analysis. In domestic science and service activities, enlarged divisions of services and service activities are often distinguished in the following areas related to their functional entity:

♦ production services - rendered to economic structures in connection with their production needs (including security, repair, banking, business, etc.);

♦ trade services (wholesale and retail);

♦ life support services - related to serving citizens within the framework of family-home ties, i.e. with the arrangement of housing, housekeeping, the realization of family needs, home rest;

♦ social services- are aimed at meeting the needs of people in those goods, qualities and functions that they need as subjects of public relations: transport, financial, postal, recreational (maintaining health, organizing recreation in public mass forms), educational, informational, etc.;

♦ cultural services - related to the provision of educational, scientific, artistic, aesthetic, entertainment services.

The presented version of the typological areas of service activity is one of the most common in the domestic practice of analyzing the service sector. Especially often they talk about social and cultural services. In this regard, the last two units of division are often combined, forming a large segment sociocultural services. The socio-cultural service is aimed at meeting the needs associated with the social, cultural and spiritual needs of people.

In turn, each in the presented version of the classification of services (typological direction) can be divided into more fractional varieties and groups. Thus, household-oriented services are divided into communal services related to maintaining cleanliness in the house, with repairs household appliances, with maintenance, etc. In turn, home maintenance services can be divided into services of electricians, plumbers, gas workers, etc.

The considered version of the classification is quite simple in its obviousness and suitable for use in the practice of service activities. However, it has disadvantages. In this case, we point out that it remains unclear to which direction some services can be assigned if they are provided to different typological groups of consumers or are implemented in dissimilar functional circumstances. For example, business and banking services may be applicable not only to production teams, but also to individuals; recreational services can acquire a mass character or a purely family-home scale, etc.

In the Russian practice of classifying services, their division into tangible and intangible. Material services include services that require material resources (raw materials, spare parts, semi-finished products, products daily demand etc.), which people later use, consume, wear out. Non-material services involve intangible, spiritual components of human activity - knowledge, mathematical apparatus and statistics, artistic images, spiritual values. However, this division remains very conditional, since both types of services cannot be implemented without the use of both material and spiritual elements of service.

As one of the options for classifying service activities, we present a model developed in domestic science based on mutually agreed upon criteria that are very important in the production and economic practice of service. These criteria make it possible to break down all services on the basis of interconnected content-functional qualities and distribute them into different classes (groups). It is fundamentally important that in this case the same service for different qualities can be included in different groups. In each of the groups, it is adjacent to different services (Table 3).

Table 3

Classification of services by interrelated qualities

Service	Quality
according to the objects of work used	- production - information
by degree of capital investment	- high capital intensive - low capital intensive
by level of material costs	- material-intensive - low-material-intensive
by the complexity of the technology for performing services	- complex technology - simple technology
according to personnel qualification	- highly professional - sufficient qualifications
in place in the infrastructure of the economy	- production - institutional - social (services to the population)
in terms of tangibility	- tangible - intangible
by the obligatory presence of the client	- the presence of the client is necessary - performed in the absence of the client
by levels legal regulation	- bilateral - multilateral
according to the degree of legal and regulatory regulation	- high regulation - sufficient regulation
according to the social status of the client (physical and legal entities)	- elite - exclusive - high status (according to European standards) - mass
place in society	- production - distribution - professional - consumer - public
for business purposes	- business - organizational - personal
in place in the field social production	- in the sphere of production - in the sphere of circulation, including
	- in retail- in wholesale trade
by organizational forms of implementation	- independent specialized firms - structures within parent firms - a specialized network of firms - individual performers
by the complexity of the services provided	- full complex (cycle) - separate types of services
by degree of commercialization	- fully commercial - partially commercial - non-commercial
according to the degree of organizational and technological regulation	- obligatory according to the regulations (scheduled preventive or planned-forced) - warranty - additional
in connection with the process of realization (marketing, sale) of products	- related sales - after-sales
in the form of reimbursement of costs for the performance of services	- paid (paid by the client, buyer) - free (paid by the manufacturer or included in the price of products)
at the place of business	- organizational (managerial) - logistics - marketing

II. The essential nature of service activities ...

The most important functions of distribution logistics are:
in planning, organizing and managing transport-moving processes in the logistics system in the post-production period;
inventory management;
receiving orders for the supply of products and their efficient processing;
picking, packaging and performing a number of other logistics operations to prepare commodity flows for generation;
organization of rational shipment;
delivery management and control over the implementation of transport and moving operations in logistics chains;
planning, organization and management of logistics services.
Distribution activities require significant costs (expenses) for their implementation. The main part of these costs is associated with the implementation of key logistics operations: warehousing, processing, transportation, forwarding, preparing products for production consumption, collecting, storing, processing and issuing information about orders, stocks, deliveries, etc. These costs are economic content partially coincide with the costs arising in the production process, but to a greater extent are caused by transport and storage costs, the cost of packaging and packaging, as well as the costs associated with the importation of goods and their dispatch to consumers, and other components of distribution costs. The total logistics costs at the local level are determined (and planned) based on the amount of sales, in terms of value per unit mass of finished products intended for sale, or as a percentage of the cost of net products.

The fundamental difference between distribution logistics and traditional methods marketing and sales consists of:
in subordinating the process of managing material and information flows to the goals and objectives of marketing;
system interconnection of the distribution process with the processes of production and procurement (in terms of material flow management);
the systemic interconnection of all functions within the distribution itself.

8.2. Tasks of distribution logistics

Distribution logistics covers the entire range of tasks for managing the material flow in the "supplier - consumer" section, from the moment the implementation task is set and ending with the moment the delivered product leaves the supplier's sphere of attention. At the same time, the main specific gravity occupy the tasks of managing material flows, which are solved in the process of promoting finished products to the consumer.
The solution of emerging problems of distribution logistics at each level is different.

In the process of solving the problems of distribution logistics, it is necessary to find answers to the following questions:

^ through which channel to bring products to the consumer;
^ how to pack products;
^ which route to send;
^ whether a network of warehouses is needed on the way from the supplier to the consumer;
^ what level of service to provide, etc.
Taking into account the specifics of the enterprise and the goals set, the tasks are solved at the micro and macro levels. Enterprise level logistics solves the following problems:
planning the implementation process;
organizing the receipt and processing of orders;
organizing a network of warehouses;
choosing the type of packaging, making a decision on picking, organizing the execution of operations immediately preceding shipment;
organization of shipment of products;
organization of delivery and control of transportation;
organization of after-sales service.

At the macro level, the tasks of distribution logistics include:
choice of material flow distribution scheme;
determination of the optimal number of distribution centers (warehouses) in the service area;
determination of the optimal location of the distribution center (warehouse) in the service area.
To solve the problems of optimizing the distribution, it is necessary to ensure control over all links of the cargo movement system. When choosing the optimal scheme of goods distribution, one should take into account the entire chain of passage of cargo to the final consumer: minimum delivery times, maximum level of service, maximum level of profit, minimum costs.
The main indicator of successful activity is the profit received, and the main activities for increasing profits are activities related to:
with the creation of a unified transport and storage system ( fast delivery to the consumer)
economic association of production and marketing;
development of optimal storage and replenishment schemes, etc.

To run a successful business, an enterprise must resolve the following questions: to what extent the costs associated with reducing the time of goods movement are offset by an increase in revenue from increased sales; whether the enterprise can afford a decrease in the level of customer service while increasing the volume of deliveries; how expedient it is to store goods at the place of production or directly on the sales market, etc.

8.3. Distribution logistics functions of the supplier and purchasing logistics of the buyer.

Consider the process of material flow management in the area between two enterprises, one of which is a supplier of goods, and the other is a wholesale buyer. From the position of the first enterprise, material flow management should be carried out by the distribution logistics method, and from the position of the second, the same flow is managed by purchasing logistics methods.
This contradiction is resolved in the sales contract, which indicates the moment until which this flow is managed by the supplier, and procurement logistics methods are used.
International chamber of commerce developed a system of standard basic terms of delivery of goods - Incoterms, which determines this moment. In Incoterms, basic terms are grouped into four distinct categories:
- the moment of transfer of risk of loss and damage from the seller to the buyer;
- the moment up to which the costs of transportation are borne by the seller, and after - by the buyer.

Consider the basic terms of delivery.
First group E contains one term EXW - ex works. When this condition is included in the contract of sale, the seller bears minimal risks of loss and minimal transportation costs, since he provides the goods to the buyer on his own territory (factory warehouse) (Fig. 8.1).
Second group F includes the terms FCA (free carrierat - free carrier), FAS (free alongside - free along the ship), FOB (free op board - free on board). Under free carrier and free on board terms, the seller pays all costs associated with the goods until loading is completed, and the buyer pays the main transportation. At the same time, the term "free board" is used for transportation by sea and river transport, and "free carrier" - for delivery by any mode of transport. In the case of using the term "free along the ship" the seller does not pay for loading. In this group of terms, the risk of loss and damage passes at the place of transfer of goods from the seller to the buyer (Fig. 8.2).

At the same time, the terms CFR and CIF are used for transportation by sea and river transport, and the rest - for transportation by any means of transport.
Fourth group D includes the terms: DAF (delivered at frontier) - delivery to the border; DES (delivered ex ship) - delivery from the ship; DEQ (delivered ex quay) - delivery from the berth; DDP (delivered duty paid) - delivery with duty paid; DDU (delivered duty unpaid) - delivery without payment of duty. The first term means that the transfer of risks and the distribution of costs between the seller and the buyer takes place at the agreed place (Fig. 8.4).

8.4. Logistics channels and distribution chains

The movement of material flows can be viewed as movement that comes from various sources - a source of raw materials, production or a distribution center. In all cases final goal movement of the material flow - receipt directly to the consumer. At all stages of the movement of the material flow within logistics, its production consumption takes place. Only on final stage, completing the logistics chain, the material flow falls into the sphere of non-productive consumption.
Industrial consumption- this is the current use of the social product for production needs as means and objects of labor.
Non-productive consumption- this is the current use of the social product for personal consumption and consumption of the population in institutions and enterprises in the non-productive sphere.
The supplier and consumer of the material flow in the general case are two micrologistics systems connected by the so-called logistics channel, or in other words, the distribution channel. Logistics channel- this is a partially ordered set of various intermediaries that bring the material flow from a particular producer to its consumers.
The set is partially ordered until the choice of specific participants in the process of moving the material flow from the supplier to the consumer is made. After that, the logistics channel is transformed into a logistics chain. Making a fundamental decision to sell products through an agency firm and, thus, refusing to work directly with the consumer, serve as a choice of distribution channel.
The choice of a specific agency firm, a specific carrier, a specific insurer, etc. is the choice of supply chain. Logistics chain is a linearly ordered set
participants in the logistics process, carrying out logistics operations to bring the external material flow from one logistics system to another.
The supplier and consumer are linked by a distribution channel.
After specific participants in the product promotion process (from supplier to consumer) are selected from many different intermediaries, the distribution channel can be called a distribution chain.
Distribution channels have a different structure. In a direct link logistics system, the distribution channels do not contain any wholesalers. In flexible systems, such channels are present, and the ability to choose a logistics distribution channel serves as a reserve for increasing the efficiency of logistics processes.

The goods can go directly to the final consumer.
The initial cost of the goods in this case will be the smallest, since intermediaries will be excluded from the chain and the cost of the goods will increase only for the costs of delivering the goods.
A wide assortment is formed by a wholesaler specializing in this direction and located in a place where consumption is concentrated. This intermediary specializes in providing maximum service to the end consumer. The distribution channel through two wholesalers (at the place of production and at the place of consumption) will provide the greatest service to the consumer, but at the same time the cost of goods will be the highest. The most profitable distribution (for the consumer) - directly through distribution center at the point of consumption.

8.5. Product distribution channels

Distribution channel is a collection of organizations individuals which assume or help to transfer to other organizations and individuals the ownership of a particular product or service on the way from producer to consumer.
The use of distribution channels brings certain benefits to manufacturers:
reduction in the volume of work on the distribution of products;
financial savings for the distribution of products;
product sales over effective ways;
ensuring the wide availability of goods.
The channel of distribution is the path along which goods move from the producer to the consumer. The selected channels directly affect the speed, time, efficiency of movement and the safety of products during delivery. The distribution channel of goods can be characterized by the number of constituent levels.
The channel level is the intermediary that does the work of bringing the product and ownership closer to the end consumer. The length of the channel is determined by the number of intermediate levels between the producer and the consumer.
Distribution channels shown in fig. 8.8 consist of an independent manufacturer and one or more independent resellers. Each channel member represents a separate enterprise that is trying to extract the maximum profit. At the same time, none of the channel participants has full or sufficient control over the activities of the other participants, i.e. all enterprises operate separately and are not organized in a system. Such distribution channels are called horizontal.
Specialists also identify vertical distribution channels, consisting of a manufacturer and one or more intermediaries, acting as a single system. One of the members of the channel, as a rule, is the owner of other companies or provides them with certain privileges.

8.6. Distribution channel structure

Under channel structure refers to the number of levels and the specific composition of the channel participants. When determining the composition of participants, it is necessary to determine the type of intermediaries.
Classification of intermediaries can be carried out according to a combination of two features:
1) on whose behalf the intermediary works;
2) at whose expense the intermediary conducts its operations.
Five types of intermediaries can be distinguished.
1. Dealers are wholesale (rarely retail) intermediaries who conduct operations on their own behalf and at their own expense. The goods are purchased by them under a supply contract, and the dealer becomes the owner of the product.
2. Distributors - wholesale and retail intermediaries acting on behalf of the manufacturer, but at their own expense. The manufacturer grants the distributor the right to sell its products in a certain territory for a period of certain period. The distributor does not own the product. Under the contract, they acquire only the right to sell.
3. Commissioners - intermediaries who act on their own behalf and at the expense of the manufacturer. The manufacturer remains the owner of the product until it is handed over and paid for by the end consumer.
The supply contract with the buyer is concluded on behalf of the commission agent. But at the same time, the risk of accidental damage to the goods lies with the manufacturer, to whom the commission agent is responsible.
4. Agents - intermediaries acting as a representative of another person (principal). For his services, the agent receives remuneration both at tariffs and by agreement with the principal.
5. Brokers - intermediaries in the conclusion of transactions, bringing counterparties together. Unlike agents, brokers are not in a contractual relationship with any of the parties to the transaction.

8.7. Building a distribution system

When building a logistics distribution system, the following selection sequence is used the best option distributions:
studying the market situation and determining the strategic goals of the distribution system;
determining the predicted value of the material flow passing through the distribution system;
forecasting the required amount of reserves for the system as a whole and for individual sections of the material-carrying chain;
analysis of the transport network of the service region, drawing up a diagram of material flows within the distribution system;
study of various options for the movement of the distribution system;
grade logistics costs for each option;
implementation of one of the developed options selected for implementation.
In order to choose one of the many options, it is necessary to establish a selection criterion, and then evaluate each of the options according to this criterion. Such a criterion, as a rule, is the minimum of the reduced costs, i.e. costs reduced to a single measurement. The value of the reduced costs is determined by the formula

For implementation, the variant of the distribution system is adopted that provides the minimum value of the reduced (annual) costs.
A necessary condition for the possibility of choosing a distribution channel, as well as optimizing the entire logistics process, is the presence on the market of a large number of intermediaries.
The use of intermediary services for many businesses is necessary condition successful product promotion. To solve the problem, which is more profitable in this case: to use the services of intermediaries or independently go to the consumer, it is necessary for each enterprise independently, i.e. all the pros and cons of a particular distribution system should be taken into account. The services of an intermediary are in demand if their cost is lower than their own costs for the performance of any work.
In a formal form, this ratio can be represented as follows:

Optimization of the distribution channel, and then the distribution chain, is possible only if there are a large number of enterprises on the product market that perform the function of an intermediary.
When considering the concept strategic management Costs are divided into three basic elements:
1) value chains;
2) strategic positioning;
3) cost factors.
At the stage of considering the value chain, it is necessary to identify the main areas of distribution. The process of organizing management accounting focuses on the processes taking place within the enterprise: procurement, administrative costs, material movement. The key point in the existing mechanism is to maximize income by maximizing the difference between purchases and sales. An integrated logistics approach using value chains is aimed at all participants in value chains. From a strategic point of view, distribution chains and related cost accounting distinguish five areas of interaction effectiveness:
1) communication with suppliers;
2) communication with consumers;
3) the unity of technological connections within one unit;
4) communications between divisions within the enterprise;
5) communications between enterprises operating in a single logistics network.
Second base element The logistics system serves as a strategic positioning. The role of analysis and direction of cost management will depend on which path the enterprise chooses. It can be cost leadership or product differentiation. As a rule, this problem is deeply and comprehensively considered within the framework of strategic management. We only note that the chosen strategy will significantly affect the formation of a logistics cost accounting system and the configuration of the information system.
When considering the third element - the cost factor - it must be divided into strategic structural and functional factors.
Strategic structural factors include:
scale of distribution - the volume of investments in various functional areas of the logistics system;
range - vertical and horizontal integration;
an experience;
technologies used at each stage of the cost chain;
complexity - the breadth of the product range.
Functional factors include:
continuous improvement of processes and labor resources;
integrated quality management (TQM);
optimal capacity loading;
effective planning of the enterprise;
the effectiveness of the project or calculation;
use of links with suppliers or customers from the point of view of the cost chain.
The activation of each of these factors or their groups can have a significant impact on the magnitude and dynamics of costs. A special and priority role belongs to one of the noted functional factors - quality.
Quality as an essential element of strategic cost management should be seen as a cross-cutting function that covers the entire value chain from supplier to consumer.

8.8. Relationship between logistics and marketing

Marketing - scientific direction, which contributes to the achievement of the company's goals through the most complete satisfaction of customer needs, thus, marketing and distribution logistics are closely interconnected. Marketing was in demand in practice due to the difficulties encountered with the sale of goods in an earlier period than logistics, which complements and develops marketing, linking the consumer, transport and supplier in single system Marketing tracks and
determines the demand that has arisen, i.e. answers the questions: what product is needed, where, when, in what quantity and what quality.
Logistics provides the physical promotion of the demanded product to the consumer.
In table. 8.1 presented Comparative characteristics marketing and logistics.

♦ other services.

Table 1 - Types of services in different fields of application

Service types	Scope of application
Manufacturing Services	Engineering, leasing, maintenance (repair) of equipment, etc.
Distribution Services	Trade, transport, communications
Professional Services	banks, Insurance companies, financial, consulting and other firms
Consumer (mass services)	Household and leisure services
Public services	Television, radio, education, culture

Let us point out the use in interstate practice of a number developed countries classification based on two related criteria: the type of services and the scope of their application. In this case, typologically similar services are grouped in a certain way (Table 1).

In a number of countries, the classification of services is made on the basis of an industry approach and is associated with historically established business practices and issues state regulation service industries. In this case, as well as in the North American model, based on a number of criteria, there is a list of service activities of the same order or similar in content. Each service is presented in one typological grouping. This list, as a rule, ends with the grouping “other services”, which includes services that are not included in any of the previous units. At the same time, the list of services remains incomplete, open for further replenishment.

A similar scheme for classifying services also operates in Russian business practice, where, on its basis, an all-Russian classifier of services to the population has been developed, and indicators of state statistics are presented. In this case, the service sector includes the following areas of service activities, which are its most important typological areas:

♦ trade (wholesale and retail);

♦ food and accommodation services (hotels, catering establishments);

♦ transport;

♦ communications and information services;

♦ supply, procurement and storage of material and technical resources;

♦ credit, finance and insurance, real estate transactions;

♦ education, culture and art;

♦ science and scientific service;

♦ health care, including physical culture and sports;

♦ household maintenance services (housing repair, industrial and household and utility services);

♦ personal services (non-production, household, etc.);

♦ public administration services;

♦ other services.

This originality was reflected in the statistical collection "The service sector in Russia" (M., 2000). It contains data on all areas of service activities in the Russian economy indicated in the all-Russian classifier for 1998-1999. Along with this, the additional section “Indicators of the development of certain types of market services” provides detailed statistical data on new services that have not yet been singled out in separate areas, but for the most part appear in general view in the "other services" group. In this case, the collection contains information about:

♦ intermediary services in real estate transactions;

♦ property valuation services;

♦ information and computer services;

♦ activities of gambling establishments.

In different countries, there are similar, but developed in their own practice, grouping of services, which are specified and supplemented in different ways. For example, in some countries, the list of such groupings includes construction, gasification networks, energy systems, etc., while in other countries these infrastructure elements are classified as statistical reporting to non-service industries.