Multidimensional content management decisions. Aspects of:
economic (manifested in the fact that the development and implementation of any management decision requires financial, material and other costs),
social (embedded in the personnel management mechanism, which includes levers of influence on people),
organizational (consists in the fact that this work involves company personnel),
legal (consists in strict compliance with the legislative acts of the Russian Federation, charter and other documents of the company itself),
political (in accordance with management decisions and regulatory requirements and the possible resonance of decisions made in the external environment),
technological (manifested in the ability to provide personnel with the necessary technical, information tools and resources for the development and implementation of management decisions), psychological (Depending on the psychological elaboration, a management decision may encounter opposition or interaction from its potential executors),
pedagogical (educational nature of SD, formation of positive moral attitudes, ensuring staff qualification growth),
ethical()
Ecological aspects (environmental protection).
Functional groups of management decisions.
There are several types of solutions typical for the management sector:
1. During the planning process, the following decisions are made: a decision about the ultimate goal and the nature of the business; about goals; about interaction with the external environment; about the strategy and tactics that are chosen by the organization to achieve its goals.
2. In the process of organizing the company’s activities, the following decisions are made: on structuring the organization’s work; on coordinating the functioning of various blocks; on the distribution of powers between the heads of the Divisions; about the structure of the organization when the external environment changes.
3. In the process of motivating staff, the following decisions are made: about the needs of subordinates; about meeting their needs; about the performance of subordinates and their job satisfaction.
4. During the control process, the following decisions are made: on measuring work results; on the evaluation of these results; about the extent to which the organization's goals have been achieved; about adjusting goals.
The versatility of the classification of management decisions. Ur are controlling, informing),
by organization (individual, collegial (group) and corporate),
for reasons (situational, prescribed, programmatic, initiative, seasonal),
by repeatability of execution (same type, different type and innovative (no alternatives),
by scale of impact (general and specific),
by method of action (strategic, tactical, operational, operational),
according to the forecast (with determination of the result, with a probabilistic outcome),
by the nature of development and implementation (balanced, impulsive, inert, risky, cautious),
by information processing methods (algorithmic, heuristic),
by the number of criteria (single-criteria, multi-criteria),
by direction of influence (internal and external),
by depth of impact (single-level and multi-level),
by object of influence (one performer, group of performers, machine, mechanism),
by resource limitations (with and without restrictions)
According to the method of recording (written, oral),
by novelty ().
Conceptual models of management trade organizations. The model is a simplification of a real life situation; representation of an object in some specific form; an ordered set of assumptions about some complex system.
Requirements for a model of the management decision-making process.
The use of modeling makes it possible to qualitatively and quantitatively assess the situation that has arisen. The use of models, on the one hand, allows the manager to use his experience and knowledge, and on the other hand, to control the situation that has arisen. You cannot shift decision-making only to the situation models embedded in the computer, because they have a recommended character. The computer cannot measure changes in the external environment. If, during the analysis of the situation, additional factors that were not previously taken into account are discovered, it is necessary to clarify the model used accordingly. When making particularly important decisions, several independent models can be used, which will describe the situation from different angles. The best effect is provided by a combination of experience, knowledge and intuition on the one hand, and on the other – decision-making technology
The main stages of the model building process.
Model formation.
Adequacy of the model of the decision-making situation.
There are a number of reasons for using a model instead of trying to directly interact with the real world:
ücomplexity of the real world (the real world of an organization is extremely complex and the actual number of changes related to a specific problem significantly exceeds the capabilities of any person and can be comprehended by simplifying the real world using modeling);
üexperimentation (there are many management situations in which it is desirable to try and experimentally test alternative solutions to a problem. Certain experiments in real world conditions can and should be performed. When Boeing designs a new aircraft, they always make a prototype, test it in real conditions and only then do full-scale production begin.
üorientation of management to the future (it is impossible to observe a phenomenon that does not yet exist and may never take place, as well as to conduct direct experiments.
Classification of models of the management decision-making process.
1) The “organization-community” model (the main regulator of the organization is the norm of behavior, it is characteristic of the Japanese ment)
2) Model of the natures of an organization (any organization develops according to its own laws) 3) Model of an “organization-machine” (an organization is an impersonal mechanism)
4) Socio-technical model (the technology of the production process is placed first)
5) Institutional model (organizations are formed under the influence of traditions) 6) Conflict model (within an organization, opposing goals and interests collide and oppose each other. Depending on the adaptation of the organization to the external environment, there are 2 types of management: - mechanistic (conservative structure (neism), clearly defined standardized tasks, resistance to change, power stems from hierarchical levels in the organization (people are subordinate not to individuals, but to positions), hierarchical control system, command type of communications (communications develop horizontally “manager- subordinates", content of communications: decision-making by management, orders, instructions); - organic type of management (flexible structure, dynamic, not rigidly defined tasks, readiness for change, power is based on knowledge and experience (subordination of the individual), self-control , multidirectionality of communications (both vertical and horizontal), content of communications: information and advice
7) Process model (society develops as a continuous process)
8) Target model (the main direction of the organization’s activities is the achievement of certain goals)
9) Problem model (the survival of an organization depends on the effectiveness of solving the problems it faces)
10) Inductive model (from particular to general, based on generalization of observations by single factors)
11)Deductive model (from abstract ideas to concrete reality)
12)Single-purpose model,
13)Multi-purpose model
14) Single period
15) Multi-period (integrated approach)
Expert modeling and features of its application in trade and services
The variety of solutions represents a certain complex, the understanding of which is facilitated on the basis of a systematic approach, which makes it possible to reveal a strict system of solutions. In such a system of solutions should appear as general signs, as well as the specific features inherent certain species decisions.
The most general classification of problems is the classification proposed by G. Simon, according to which all problems are divided into three classes:
1) Well-structured or quantitatively formulated problems in which the essential dependencies are so well understood that they can be expressed in numbers or symbols that ultimately receive numerical estimates;
2) Unstructured or qualitatively expressed problems containing only a description of the most important resources, features and characteristics, the quantitative relationships between which are completely unknown;
3) Ill-structured or mixed problems that contain both qualitative and quantitative elements, with the qualitative, obscure and uncertain aspects of the problems tending to dominate.
Another possible classification option is presented in Table. 1.2.
Table 1.2
| Management decisions | |
| By functional focus | Planning Organizational Activating Coordinating Controlling Informing |
| By organization | Individual Collegial Corporate |
| End of table 1.2. | |
| For reasons | Unexpected: situational and initiative Planned: by prescription, program, seasonal |
| By degree of repeatability | Traditional Non-traditional Innovative |
| By scale of impact | General Private |
| By duration | Strategic Tactical Operational |
| By implementation time | Long-term Medium-term Short-term |
| By the nature of development and implementation | Balanced Impulsive Inert Risky Cautious |
| By processing methods | Algorithmic Heuristic |
| By number of criteria | Single-criteria Multi-criteria |
| By direction of influence | External Internal |
| By application form | Sole Collegial |
| By sphere of influence | Global Local |
| By fixation method | Written Oral |
| Nature of information | Deterministic Probabilistic |
Let's look at the classification in more detail.
Functional focus determined common function management, which initiates the development of management decisions. Solutions can be developed for the implementation of planned activities - planning decisions. These decisions define the necessary parameters for strategic or tactical planning activities of the organization. A large group of management decisions is devoted to organizational problems of managing an organization, (for example, improving organizational structure control) – these are organizational management decisions. For effective management the staff develops solutions on various aspects of enhancing the activities of the organization’s employees - These are activating management decisions. Coordinating management decisions necessary to coordinate the changing conditions of external and internal environment to ensure coordination in the organization’s activities (for example, decisions related to changes in the organization’s procurement and sales policy, changes in staffing table). Controlling management decisions are aimed at ensuring timely implementation production plans and planned development milestones (for example, decisions on the methodology for conducting internal audit, accounting and control over the execution of orders). Informing management decisions are aimed at streamlining the information field for the organization’s employees and providing them with the necessary information (for example, information mail the head of the organization to the staff with a message about his trip to the economic forum in Davos).
The process of organizing the development and reorganization of management decisions is based on the choice of priority in an individual or collegial (group) approach. An individual approach to the development of management decisions is very typical for organizations. This approach requires the manager to have self-confidence, professionalism and a creative approach. Such solutions require less time to develop. The developer of this type of solution is personally responsible for the results of its implementation. The group approach to the development of management decisions is characterized by greater validity, the development of original approaches, and the involvement of developers in its implementation. This approach increases the time required to prepare a solution. This approach limits managers’ freedom to choose management decisions and requires maintaining a balance of interests of the specialists involved in its development. Solutions are called corporate, which are made both by individuals and collectively (i.e. part of the decision is made individual).
The reasons influencing the development of management decisions are very diverse, but come down to two groups: unexpected and planned. Unexpected management decisions include situational and initiative ones, while planned ones include prescriptive, programmatic and seasonal decisions. Situational decisions are caused by events that may disrupt the planned course of an organization's activities. Decisions of this type relate to the day-to-day decisions of the manager. Initiative decisions are the creative contribution of a leader to the activities of the organization within the framework of the powers given to him. These decisions should complement the main decisions of senior managers - in functional responsibilities subordinate manager and are determined by the relevant regulations. Software management solutions represent program-targeted technological process, according to which the manager at a given time must make a decision on the further work of his department, replenishment of resources, etc. Seasonal management decisions are more stable in time than program ones and are associated with calendar dates (for example, by spring - preparation of a vacation schedule, by autumn decisions on carrying out work on insulating premises, etc.).
The repeatability of the implementation of management decisions is important for the correct establishment of controllability standards in the organization. Traditional solutions- these are solutions previously encountered in management practice. In this case, you only need to make a choice from already available alternatives . Unconventional These are decisions that require a search for new alternatives. Innovative solutions usually relate to the process of restructuring and reforming an organization to increase its competitiveness - this comprehensive solutions and their labor intensity is even higher than that of non-traditional ones.
The scale of impact of management decisions can be limited to one person, one team, or the entire team of the organization. Each decision has a target orientation, which determines the objects of management decisions. If decisions are developed for mandatory execution by all personnel, such decisions are called general. And the solution is called private, designed for one person(for example, it is unethical to reprimand an employee, which must be made known to all employees of the organization, but it is advisable to convey gratitude to an employee to the attention of all employees).
The duration of a decision is determined by its importance. There are strategic, tactical and operational management decisions. Strategic decisions are developed for a long period (5...10 years) covering key strategic decisions and are developed for a shorter period (1...3 years) covering part of the key elements of the organization. Operational decisions are developed when opportunities or situations arise that change the course of implementation of tactical decisions. Operational management decisions are short-term.
There are long-term, medium-term and short-term solutions based on implementation timeframes. The results of implementing promising long-term solutions may last for several years. If between the adoption of a decision and the completion of its implementation there will be a relatively short term- the solution will be short-term.
The nature of the development and implementation of management decisions greatly depends on personal characteristics person. They can be divided into the following groups: balanced, impulsive, inert, risky, cautious. Balanced decisions are made by people who are attentive and critical of their actions, put forward hypotheses and their testing. Such people usually have a formulated idea before making a decision. Impulsive decisions are made by managers who easily generate a wide variety of ideas in unlimited quantities, but are unable to properly test, clarify and evaluate them. The decision in this case turns out to be insufficiently substantiated and reliable, i.e. are accepted in spurts. Inert solutions are the result of careful search. In them, control and clarifying actions predominate over the generation of ideas; in such decisions it is difficult to detect originality, brilliance, and innovation. They weakly motivate staff to implement them. Risky decisions are made without justification for actions by a leader who is confident in his abilities. Typically, such managers have good support in the form of constantly supporting superior managers or subordinates. They are not afraid of any dangers. Cautious decisions are characterized by the manager's thorough assessment of all options, a hypercritical approach to the matter, and a large number of approvals.
Based on information processing methods, decisions are divided into algorithmic and heuristic. Algorithmic solutions require strict formalization of the implementation of procedures and operations based on rules, algorithms, formulas, and statistical data (for example, the calculation of the economic efficiency of a new production should be carried out using developed algorithms). But in management, not everything can be measured quantitatively. Something is assessed qualitatively. You can process and evaluate information based on intuition, generalizations, ideas, experience, and associations. Through conversation, discussion, and asking leading questions, you can obtain new information from a client or partner. Such decisions are called heuristic.
Determining the number of criteria for evaluating options (alternatives) for management decisions is a difficult task. The criteria may include parameters such as comfort in the workplace: light, warmth, etc. Simple management decisions are usually compared according to one criterion and are called single-criteria, while complex ones are compared according to several and are called multi-criteria.
Based on the direction of impact, management decisions are divided into decisions aimed at internal or external environment organizations, i.e. internal and external solutions.
According to the form of making management decisions, they can be individual or collegial.. Sole decisions are those made by one person. Group or collective decisions are called collegial (in conditions market relations situations and problems arise more and more often, the solution of which requires comprehensive analysis, i.e. participation of a group of specialists).
According to the sphere of influence, management decisions are divided into global and local. Decisions that affect one or more divisions of the organization are called local, and decisions that affect the work of the organization as a whole are called global.
The method of recording management decisions can be oral or written. Managers provide written decisions for legal review and subsequently for execution. Oral management decisions also have legal force, and they can be appealed in court if there are at least two people who heard these decisions.
Depending on the degree of completeness and reliability of the information available to the manager, management decisions can be deterministic (made under conditions of certainty) or probabilistic (adopted under conditions of uncertainty and risk). Deterministic decisions are made in the presence of complete reliable information regarding the problem being solved (for example, a decision to release a new type of product assumes that the manager knows (in the near future) the level of production, since the cost of rent, building materials And work force can be calculated quite accurately). Decisions made under risk include information about the problem, then you can try to obtain additional information and re-analyze the problem in order to reduce its novelty and complexity. When there is not enough time and/or funds, then collection additional information, when making decisions you have to rely on past experience and intuition.
The composition, structure, content and form of management decisions are determined by the specified principles and classification criteria.
The main requirements for management decisions and ensuring reasonable efficiency of their implementation and understanding by performers are feasibility (reality); timeliness; systematic (interconnectedness with other solutions); rationality (efficiency, optimality); legality (validity); authority (compliance with the level of rights); consistency; continuity (connection with previous decisions); simplicity; clarity; brevity of presentation.
If a management decision is considered as a result management activities, then the process of obtaining it represents the management activity itself. Naturally, as in any activity, the basis is the technology of its implementation.
The main means of management activity that determine the technology for its implementation are Information Systems, including Information Support, organizational management techniques, conditions of management activities (organization, workplaces) and, naturally, professional, business, socio-psychological and other personal qualities of the subject of the activity.
Management decision- this is the choice of a management goal and the values of controlled factors that ensure the achievement of this goal.
A solution belongs to a certain type if it has some common feature characteristic of a certain set of solutions.
By degree of development distinguish between programmed and unprogrammed decisions.
Programmed decisions are made as a result of a certain sequence of steps according to standard methods or rules that are developed in advance and applied in typical situations. Unprogrammed decisions require the development of new procedures or decision rules. Organizational leaders are forced to make unprogrammed decisions in new or unique problem situations. In these cases, there is no specific sequence of necessary actions to solve the problem.
According to the degree of justification Intuitive, logical and rational decisions can be distinguished.
Intuitive decisions are made by people based on the feeling that they are correct. At the same time, the decision maker does not consciously compare all the advantages and disadvantages of each alternative. In this case, the decision is made subconsciously, without obvious logical justification. Logical decisions are made based on knowledge, experience and logical judgment. When making logical decisions, people turn to experience and common sense to predict the possible consequences of alternatives and justify their actions in a particular situation. Rational solutions are based on an objective analysis of complex problem situations using scientific methods and computer technology. Rational decisions are considered the most reasonable, since in the process of their development and adoption all mechanisms available to humans are used - intuition, logic and calculation.
Based on feasibility There are two types of decisions - admissible and unacceptable.
Valid solutions are solutions that satisfy all constraints and can be implemented in practice. Decisions are always made under objective constraints - resource, time, legal, organizational, ethical, etc. It is within the given restrictions that the area of acceptable options for action is formed. Infeasible solutions - unrealistic solutions that do not satisfy one or more constraints
According to the degree of goal achievement: unreasonable, satisfactory and optimal solutions.
Unwise decisions- these are unacceptable decisions or decisions that do not lead to achieving the management goal. Satisfactory decisions are those courses of action that lead to the achievement of the organization's management goals. These solutions satisfy all objective and subjective constraints simultaneously and provide an acceptable, but not necessarily the best, result. Optimal decisions are decisions of the manager that ensure the maximum degree of achievement of the management goal. These are the best compromises resulting from careful analysis.
Based on innovativeness: routine, selective, adaptive and innovative solutions.
Routine solutions- These are well-known methods of action to resolve the problem. They represent a standard reaction to a typical situation. Selective decisions involve choosing one alternative from a specific set of courses of action. Adaptive decisions are made when the situation changes and therefore some modification is required known variants taking into account the peculiarities of the new situation. Innovative decisions are made in conditions where the problem cannot be solved using known methods of action and requires the development of fundamentally new solutions that have not been used before.
By scale of change introduced into the organization: situational and reorganizational. Situational solutions do not involve any global changes and are associated with solving current problems of the organization. Reorganization decisions involve significant changes, such as restructuring the organizational structure or choosing new strategy organizations.
By duration highlight strategic, tactical and operational decisions. Strategic decisions are aimed at achieving the long-term goals of the organization. Tactical decisions ensure the implementation of strategic ones and pursue the achievement of medium-term goals of the organization. Operational decisions are made by managers on a daily basis to achieve short-term goals and carry out ongoing work in the organization.
According to the content of the decision, they are divided into permissive, prohibitive and constructive. Allowing and prohibiting decisions are management decisions of the “yes” or “no” type, which simply give the go-ahead or impose a ban on certain proposals to solve the problem. In these cases, the leader himself does not offer anything, but acts only as a judge, accepting or rejecting the ideas of other people. Constructive solutions are proposed by the manager independently and reflect his active position in relation to the problem being solved.
Based on the number of persons Those involved in decision making are divided - individual and collective. Individual decisions are made by the head of the organization alone. The head of the organization has the right to submit any decisions for discussion in the group, consult with his subordinates, involve experts and analysts in solving the problem, but he makes the final decision independently. Collective decisions are the result of joint intellectual work of a group of people. Such decisions are made taking into account the interests and positions of all group members.
Management decisions are divided into types depending on the field of activity of the organization: production decisions (choice of production technology), marketing solutions(choice of market segment), financial decisions (choice of optimal portfolio valuable papers), personnel decisions (selection and placement) and many others .
In the process of managing organizations, it is accepted great amount a wide variety of solutions with different characteristics. Nevertheless, there are some common features that allow this set to be divided into types in a certain way, i.e. classify.
Construction of any classification is determined primarily by the position of the author and the set of features underlying it, therefore there are various approaches to the classification of management decisions . It is only important to follow a few generally accepted requirements to classification criteria, the most important of which are: materiality; constancy; observability.
Classification of management decisions:
Economic solutions aimed at increasing the efficiency of activities (the ratio of economic results and costs), the formation and distribution of income of the organization. Examples economic decisions: decisions on the distribution of profit, on changing the volume and structure of products, and improving their quality.
Organizational decisions represent a way of implementing organizational influence, which has as its task the streamlining of the system, i.e. bringing the structure and methods of its internal and external connections in accordance with management goals. Within organizational decisions, decisions on the organization of a particular process or its execution are distinguished (for example, decisions on the delegation of rights, duties and responsibilities); regulatory decisions; decisions on rationalization, improvement, restructuring and development of the system; solutions for the design of new systems.
Technical solutions associated with the creation and implementation of new equipment, construction of production and non-production premises, etc.
Technological solutions have the goal of introducing advanced manufacturing technologies and replacing outdated technological processes.
Social solutions are a tool for personnel development, improvement social structure collective (gender, age, educational, etc.).
By functional focus- planning decisions are developed for the implementation of planned activities, they define the necessary parameters for strategic, tactical and operational planning; organizational solutions are aimed at solving organizational problems in the managed system; activating solutions are developed to effectively manage employees and enhance their activities; coordinating solutions are used to coordinate changing conditions of the external and internal environment; controlling decisions are used to ensure timely implementation of planned activities and control the execution of orders; informing solutions are designed to provide employees with the information they need.
By the nature (significance) of goals -- strategic, defining general tasks; tactical, in which more specific tasks are developed aimed at implementing a previously developed strategy; operational aimed at implementing priority, immediate tasks.
By period of implementation(implementation duration) -- promising(long-term - over 5 years), designed for a long period of time; current(medium-term - from 1 year to 5 years), which are part of, detailing and clarification of promising ones; adjusting(short-term - up to 1 year), aimed at ensuring the implementation of strategic and current decisions.
By development methods -- formalized (quantitative), in the substantiation of which mathematical methods are widely used (as a rule, these are routine, repeated decisions made according to a predetermined algorithm); not formalized (heuristic), which are justified mainly by heuristic methods (new, atypical situations and non-standard problems that require intellectual abilities, talent and personal initiative of managers).
According to the terms, in which decisions are developed - decisions made in conditions certainty(they are usually well structured (deterministic)); decisions made under conditions risk and classified as probabilistic; decisions made under conditions uncertainty, classified as search engines; decisions made under conditions counteraction(conflict) and related to “game” problems.
According to the degree of formalization of the problem a distinction should be made between programmed, partially programmed and unprogrammed decisions. These solutions correspond to well-structured, weakly structured and unstructured problems.
Structuring is understood as the possibility of quantitative expression of dependencies between elements of a situation.
Problems in which the dependencies between elements of the situation can receive numerical values or symbols are considered well-structured. When solving well-structured problems, quantitative methods of analysis are used (from elementary arithmetic operations to linear, nonlinear, dynamic programming, queuing theory, game theory).
Programmed solution is the result of implementing a certain sequence of steps or actions, similar to those taken when solving a mathematical equation. At the same time, the number of possible alternatives is limited (up to the presence of one solution option).
Unstructured (or qualitatively expressed) problems contain only descriptions of the most important resources, features and characteristics, the quantitative relationships between which are completely unknown.
Non-programmed solutions have to be accepted in new, often unexpected conditions.
According to the method of preparation and decision-making are divided into individual, group And collective. An individual approach to decision making is preferable under time pressure. At the same time, an important advantage of group and collective decisions is the ability to take into account experience and knowledge different people. The problem lies only in the competence of decision makers. Because of this, the decision on technical re-equipment will be individual or group, and the decision on the distribution of enterprise profits must be collective. Decisions involving radical change in an organization must be made collectively.
A type of group decisions are collegial (decisions of councils, boards). Collegial and collective form decision making reduce the efficiency of management and complicate the determination of responsibility for its results, but they prevent gross errors and abuses and increase the validity of choice, provided that the decision makers are professional.
According to legal registration decisions can be in the form of a plan, order, instruction, instruction, etc.
Correctly classified management decision gives the decision maker the opportunity to correctly answer the following questions:
- – within what time frame a decision needs to be made;
- – who has the authority to make a decision;
- – what methods of information processing to use when making decisions;
- – how many criteria to select to evaluate alternative options.
Based on the results of answers to these questions, restrictions are determined when making a decision: deadlines, number of criteria, method of recording, etc.
Model -- This is an image of a real object (process) in a material or ideal form (described by symbolic means or in any language), reflecting the essential properties of the modeled object (process) and replacing it in the course of research and management.
The main characteristic of the model can be considered a simplification of the real life situation to which it refers. Because the model's form is less complex, and because irrelevant data that clouds the real-life problem is eliminated, the model often enhances a manager's ability to understand and solve the problems he or she faces. The model also helps the manager combine his experience and judgment with the experience and judgment of experts.
There are a number reasons for using the model instead of trying to directly interact with the real world:
- 1) Complexity of organizational situations. Like all schools of management, management science strives to be useful in solving real-world organizational problems. It may seem strange that a person's capabilities increase when interacting with reality using its model. But this is true because the real world of an organization is extremely complex and the actual number of variables relevant to a particular problem is far beyond the capabilities of any human being and can only be comprehended by simplifying the real world through simulation.
- 2) Impossibility of conducting experiments. There are many management situations in which it is necessary to try and experimentally test alternative solutions to a problem. Of course, company executives would be wrong to invest millions of dollars in a new product without experimentally establishing that its market outcome will be as intended and that it will likely be accepted by consumers. Certain experiments in real world conditions can and should take place. When designing complex, high-tech products, a sample must be made, then tested in real conditions, and only then can it be produced on a full scale. But direct experimentation of this type is expensive and time consuming. This is where models come to the rescue.
In addition, there are countless critical situations where a decision needs to be made but cannot be experimented with in real life.
3) Orientation of management to the future. It is impossible to observe a phenomenon that does not yet exist and may never exist. Modeling is the only systematic way to date to see future options and determine the potential consequences of alternative solutions, which allows them to be objectively compared.
Model types. There are currently many used modern organizations models, as well as the problems for which they are most suitable, however, three basic types of models can be distinguished. It's about about physical, analog and mathematical models.
Physical model represents what is being explored through an enlarged or reduced description of an object or system.
Analog model represents the object under study as an analogue that behaves like a real object, but does not look like one. A graph illustrating the relationship between production volume and costs is an analogue model.
IN mathematical model, Also called symbolic, symbols are used to describe the properties or characteristics of an object or event. An example of a mathematical model and its analytical power to help us understand extremely complex problems is Einstein's famous formula E = mc 2 .
Main models used For development of management decisions. There are a huge variety of specific models used to develop management decisions. Their number is as large as the number of problems they were designed to solve.
IN general view as part of economic and mathematical models the following can be distinguished:
- - linear programming models;
- - optimal economic and mathematical models (simulation models, network planning and management models);
- - models for analyzing the dynamics of economic processes;
- - models for forecasting economic processes (trend models based on growth curves, adaptive forecasting models);
- - balance models;
- - econometric models;
- - other applied models of economic processes (demand and supply models, inventory management models, queuing theory models, game theory models).
Most often in management practice, game theory models, queuing theory models, inventory management models, simulation models, economic models, and linear programming models are used.
Game theory models. One of the most important variables on which the success of an organization depends is competitiveness. Obviously, the ability to predict the actions of competitors means an advantage for any organization. Game theory is a method for modeling impact decision taken on competitors. Game theory was originally developed by the military so that the strategy could take into account the possible actions of the enemy. In business, game models are used to predict how competitors will react to price changes, new sales promotions, additional service offerings, modifications, and new product introductions.
Queuing theory models are used to determine the optimal number of service channels in relation to the need for them. Situations in which queuing theory models can be useful include bank clients waiting for a free teller, or a queue of trucks being unloaded at a warehouse.
Inventory management models are used to determine the time of placing orders for resources and their quantity, as well as the mass finished products in warehouses. Any organization must maintain some level of inventory to avoid delays in production and distribution. The purpose of this model is to minimize negative consequences accumulation of inventories, which are expressed in certain costs.
Simulation modeling. All the models described above imply the use of imitation in a broad sense, since they are all substitutes for reality. However, as a modeling technique, simulation specifically refers to the process of creating a model and its experimental application to determine changes in a real situation. Simulation is often a very practical way of substituting a model for a real system or full-scale prototype. By experimenting with a model of the system, you can determine how it will respond to certain changes or events, if it is not possible to observe this system in reality. If the results of experimentation using a simulation model indicate that the modification leads to improvement, the manager can decide with greater confidence to implement changes in the real system.
Economic analysis. Almost all managers perceive simulation as a modeling method. However, many of them never thought that economic analysis - obviously the most common method - is also a form of model building. Economic analysis includes almost all methods for assessing costs and economic benefits, as well as the relative profitability of an enterprise. A typical economic model is based on break-even analysis, a decision-making technique that determines the point at which total revenue equals total costs, i.e. the point at which the enterprise becomes profitable.
Optimal linear programming. A necessary condition for an optimal approach to planning and management (the principle of optimality) is flexibility, alternativeness of production and economic situations under which planning and management decisions have to be made. It is precisely such situations that, as a rule, constitute the daily practice of an economic entity (choice production program, attachment to suppliers, routing, cutting materials, preparing mixtures, etc.).
The essence of the optimality principle is the desire to choose such a planning and management decision X = (x 1 , X 2 ,..., X n ), Where X j , (j = 1, n) -- its components, which would best take into account the internal capabilities and external conditions of the production activity of an economic entity.
The words “best” here mean the choice of some optimality criterion, i.e. some economic indicator, allowing you to compare the effectiveness of certain planning and management decisions. Traditional optimality criteria are “maximum profit”, “minimum costs”, “maximum profitability”, etc.
Classification of management decisions:
1.According to the degree of influence on the future of the organization:
A) strategic (determine the general directions of development of the organization and its long-term goals)
B) tactical (specific methods of achieving first)
2.by scale:
A) global – covers the entire organization as a whole
B) local – affect some aspects of the enterprise’s activities.
3.by duration of the implementation period:
A) long-term (more than five years)
B) medium-term (from 1 year to 5 years)
C) short-term (less than 1 year)
4. according to the direction of impact:
A) external
B) internal
5. according to mandatory fulfillment:
A) directive - accepted by senior management and mandatory for execution
C) orienting – determine the unified direction of activity of the organization’s subsystems
6.by functionality:
A) regulatory – determine the method of performing actions
B) coordinating – concentrate efforts around the problem
C) controlling – aimed at evaluating results
7.by breadth of coverage:
A) general – applies to the entire company
B) special – consider individual issues
8.by degree of programming:
A) programmed – accepted in standard situations
B) unprogrammed - accepted in new conditions
9.by area of implementation: scientific and marketing research, production.
10.according to methods of acceptance:
A) intuitive - accepted by the manager based on his ability to foresee results
B) adaptive - adopted in accordance with the professional and personal knowledge of the manager
C) rational - based on scientific analysis Problems.
At the core decisions based on judgment lies knowledge, meaningful experience of the past and common sense. Characteristic for operational management.
Rational solutions based on methods economic analysis, justification and optimization. Characteristic for strategic and tactical management.
A manager who focuses only on intuition becomes a hostage to chance, and his chances of right choice the solutions are not very high.
Management decisions are made by people, and therefore their nature largely depends on the personality of the manager directly involved in their development.
Balanced Solutions accepted by a manager who is attentive and critical to his actions, the hypotheses put forward and their testing.
Impulsive decisions characteristic of a manager who easily generates a wide variety of ideas in unlimited quantities, but is unable to properly test, clarify, and evaluate them.
Inert solutions- the result of a careful search for a manager. In them, clarifying and controlling actions prevail over the generation of ideas, where originality, innovation, and brilliance are difficult to detect.
If a manager does not need to thoroughly substantiate his hypotheses and is confident in himself, he may not be afraid of any difficulties and accept risky decisions.
Careful decisions appear when the manager carefully evaluates all options and approaches the matter critically. The solutions are not new and original.
Algorithm for making management decisions.
Decision development algorithm - a logical sequence of operations for developing a management decision. Decision-making algorithm in traditional management
Such an algorithm may include the following operations:
- problem detection;
- collection of information;
- information analysis;
- determining management goals when solving a problem;
- development of a criterion for the effectiveness of a solution;
- identification of a problem with one that previously occurred in this or another organization;
- study of techniques and their consequences used to solve a similar problem;
- forecasting by analogy with previously observed consequences of using the techniques being studied (when forecasting by analogy, it is believed that the use of those
- the same techniques will lead to the same, similar results as in the previous case);
- assessment of solution options;
- adoption, formalization, communication of the decision to the executors, its execution and, finally, monitoring the implementation of decisions.
Delegation of authority in the decision-making process.
In dynamic business conditions, it is impossible to do without delegating authority to other employees.
Sooner or later, a moment comes when all ways to optimize your time are exhausted, the process gets out of control - you urgently need to delegate some of your functions and powers!
To optimally solve this problem, ten principles of delegation have been developed.
Clear final goal
Managers must clearly establish the results they expect from the empowered subordinate. A clear understanding of what needs to be achieved and why it is important is a necessary prerequisite for delegation and empowerment.
We cannot work, study, or perform any other activities until we understand the goals and consequences of our activities.
Delegation of authority must be comprehensive
In addition to the desired end results, the manager needs to clearly define conditions under which the task must be performed.
the manager must set clear deadlines and reporting schedule.
the manager must clearly set the limits within which the employee can demonstrate your initiative.
Levels of initiative vary depending on the degree of control over the timing and scope of the task:
A.Wait for instructions on what to do.. You take certain actions only after receiving the appropriate command. This form of delegation is least related to the granting of rights, since it does not allow the subordinate to exercise his own initiative. In this case, there is no need to control deadlines (when done) or the amount of work done (what is done).
B.Ask what to do. Subordinates are given some freedom when deciding on the timing of the task, but not on its content. Subordinates can formulate their own ideas about how best to complete a task, but since they cannot take action without the manager's approval, their scope of authority is extremely limited.
B.Get recommendations, then take action. This option gives subordinates more rights, since in this case they have some freedom in setting the deadlines and content of the task delegated to them.
D. Carry out the task and immediately report the results. Subordinates are given the right to use their own initiative, but are required to report their actions to the manager so that he can ensure that the decisions they make are correct and do not conflict with other organizational goals.
D. Get down to business, and report only as planned. Subordinates themselves control both the timing and the volume and content of the assigned task.
Invite the employee to participate in the consideration of delegation of authority
Establish parity between rights and responsibilities
The most famous and general principle delegation of authority. In order for subordinates to succeed, they must be provided with all the rights necessary to complete the task assigned to them.
In no case should a manager give subordinates excessive rights, that is, give them unnecessary power, freedom, resources and information. Such a discrepancy leads to a decrease in the level of responsibility and abuse of authority. A manager can assign primary responsibility to subordinates, that is, responsibility for short-term (intermediate) results. They will bear this responsibility to the manager who has delegated the appropriate authority to them.
Work within the existing organizational structure
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