The second stage in the evolution of the modern concept of marketing is characterized by the fact that, under the influence of the consequences of the global economic crisis of 1929-1932, marketing begins to acquire the contours of a conceptual system. The emergence of the so-called basic concepts, which became the basis for the subsequent development of marketing up to the present day, dates back to this time. During this period, three fundamental approaches to organization were formed marketing activities, constituting its foundation:
- functional approach - is based on an element-by-element analysis of the sales activities of the enterprise, namely - wholesale, transportation and storage. The main emphasis is on intra-company planning.
- institutional approach - puts the final sale of manufactured products at the forefront of marketing activities, its retail sale. In this case, the focus is on working with the retailer (the so-called "merchandising").
- product approach - is based on a thorough study of consumer preferences, taking into account which the development of products and their modernization are carried out.
At the second stage of marketing evolution, the formation of so-called consumer marketing began. The initial thesis of this direction of marketing development was the idea that consumers inevitably give preference to goods with higher quality indicators, but at the same time they strive to purchase not so much the product itself as a thing, but the consumer utility that is embodied in it. Hence, the main thing in justifying decisions on the production of a particular product becomes a deep, comprehensive study, first of all, of the consumer, his needs and demands, as well as the conditions and factors under the influence of which they are formed and developed.
At the same time, integration into a single whole took place of all the previously named three approaches to organizing marketing activities - functional, institutional and product - and an understanding of marketing arose as a system covering all types of enterprise activities related to the production of products and their promotion from manufacturer to consumer. A new element of marketing appeared, such as marketing research, which later became the basis of all marketing activities.
A new qualitative turn occurred in the 50-60s, when, having overcome post-war difficulties, economically the developed countries entered a new stage of development. Marketing began to be viewed as a process broader than intra-company planning and even than the strategy and tactics of the economic behavior of an enterprise. It was during this period that he began to be perceived as "business philosophy" and the basic outlines of the modern concept of marketing were formed. Marketing was recognized by large corporations, which led to major changes in the structure of intra-company management. The main one is the creation of special marketing services and the transfer of sales management functions to the head of the marketing department.
The development of so-called management marketing dates back to the same period, the essence of which is the dissemination of marketing principles to all levels of enterprise management from bottom to top. One of the leading management experts, Gordon Bolt, writes:
“Operations, finance, and sales personnel must embrace the psychology of marketing thinking, even if they are not directly involved in executing marketing.”
Methodologically, the main achievement of this stage should be considered the emergence of the concept of the marketing process and structure, as well as the development of methods for comprehensive market research.
At the same stage, international marketing began to take shape, which is also called global marketing. It became especially widespread in the 80s due to the increased international trade, the development of tourism and other forms of cooperation between different countries.
At the same time, the development of marketing theory followed the application of a systematic approach to the organization of marketing activities. In terms of systems analysis, marketing is considered in two aspects:
- as a management subsystem within an enterprise, the functioning of which ensures communication between the manufacturer and the consumer - micromarketing
- as a subsystem within society, through which market management is achieved in order to meet the needs of end consumers - macromarketing
The latter is a fundamentally new direction, shifting the center of gravity from studying the problems of a single firm to analysis. social system within which it carries out its activities. This was the impetus for the emergence of a number of new approaches to marketing activities: social marketing, consumerism, behaviorism and strategic planning.
The meaning of social marketing- significant expansion of the scope of marketing activities. Its subject is not only the market, but also socio-political activity. The purpose of social marketing is the creation, implementation and control of programs aimed at increasing the attractiveness of any social idea (idea marketing), developing certain norms and behavioral skills (for example, an anti-smoking campaign), etc. Social marketing is the use of marketing techniques for non-profit purposes.
Consumerism aims to create and implement a system of consumer rights protection.
Behaviorism- a direction of marketing that specializes in studying the psychological aspects of consumer behavior in the process of choosing and purchasing goods, identifying their motivations and preferences. The development of behaviorism is associated with the development of one of the most important marketing tools - market segmentation.
Contents of strategic planning(strategic marketing), in which many theorists and representatives of the business world at one time saw the pinnacle of marketing, taken into account when making any management decision, consists in studying the relationship between external factors and internal resources and capabilities of the company. Strategic marketing is one of the priority areas of modern marketing and, according to experts, will remain of paramount importance in the future.
The combination of all these areas forms the basis of the modern concept of marketing, which is the methodological basis of practical marketing, or marketing as a way of action, which is understood as a specific way of organizing economic activity enterprise, based on the integration and coordination of all functions to identify and assess market needs, transform this knowledge into specific products, generate demand and promote goods from the manufacturer to the final consumer.
Practical marketing acts as the most important function of enterprise management, closely linked with management. In our opinion, the development of the theory and practice of marketing and management follows the path of their convergence, i.e. interpenetration. It can be defined as specific form application of a program-targeted approach to organizing the production and marketing activities of an enterprise, where the goal is to ensure greater profits while minimizing commercial risk, and the program is a set of measures to maximize the adaptation of the entire work of the company and the products being developed or planned for production to the requirements of specific consumers.
The question of what influences the consumer's decision to purchase is still acute for market participants. And at every stage of development consumer society There were different theories. In the 20th century, American social psychology proposed the theory of behaviorism, which is still actively used by many advertising creators.
The basic concept of behaviorism is expressed by the “stimulus-response” scheme, and the nature of the reaction is determined only by the stimulus. It takes into account mainly the totality of situations that are different in nature, which affect the actions of a person. Motives, emotions and feelings are not taken into account here. Undoubtedly, this is an omission of this theory. When using this concept, the motive must be sought in advance, and an advertising message must be built around it. Let's consider in more detail. So, stimulus and response.
The ideas of respondent and operant learning are widely used in advertising. Responsive behavior implies the following: a certain stimulus causes a reaction (bright light entails a decrease in the pupil, a sharp increase in sound in commercial entails switching attention to it, the same with a decrease in the volume level or complete silence, etc.).
Operant learning involves the influence of the consequences of actions on these actions. Operant behavior is determined by the events that follow the response. The main idea is that reinforced (positive reaction, praise, gift, etc.) behavior tends to be repeated, while unreinforced or punished (negative) behavior tends not to be repeated or suppressed. Positive reinforcement is used throughout advertising, an example of negative reinforcement is social advertising.
Many stocks are based on this theory. A striking example“Night of Sales” or “Black Friday”. The consumer finds himself surrounded by a powerful advertising message: a total reduction in prices for goods and services in a short period of time. Marketers have the opportunity to control consumer behavior, where it is difficult for consumers to resist the incentive to buy more by spending less, many consumers deliberately wait for these promotions.
B.F. Skinner also proposed an analysis of various reinforcement options:
– regime with a constant ratio (more reactions – more reinforcements, or more purchases – more discounts etc.);
– constant interval mode (reinforcement follows at clearly defined periods of time, for example on Tuesdays there is a 10% discount);
– mode with a variable ratio (Slot machines, the average number of reactions is taken into account, which is good to use when planning advertising activity);
– a mode with a variable interval (reinforcement follows after an indefinite period of time; in marketing, this option is embodied, for example, in the form of a bonus program, when bonuses are awarded for purchases for the next period).
Also, behavior can be “copied” - having seen the actions of one person that have been reinforced, the observer will most likely try to repeat it. And vice versa. This phenomenon has become most widespread in advertising. With correctly selected incentives, the consumer can identify himself with the characters in the advertisement and develop a desire to possess this product or service.
Although the model is quite working, there is still a decline in response to advertising. In my opinion, this is happening because marketers are too carried away with primitive methods of influencing consumers, taken from behaviorism. And the consumer, having learned all the new models, moved to a new way of interacting with the environment - reflection and analysis. If we draw an analogy with a child, then he has matured. Manufacturers are vying for the best incentive, and the model is undoubtedly improving. Using this model, it is necessary to add a motive here.
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Every year the process of creating advertising becomes more and more knowledge-intensive. One of the reasons for this is the ever-increasing competition and increasing density of the information space. The number of channels, publications, and websites is increasing, as is the number of advertising messages. Due to the ever-increasing advertising noise, the effectiveness of an individual advertising message is decreasing. Therefore, modern figures advertising industry They are looking for new ways to increase advertising effectiveness.
One of these ways is the use of psychological concepts and techniques in advertising. In modern psychology there are many directions that study the same subject - the human psyche from different positions.
All psychological concepts that are used in advertising can be divided into three groups:
- psychodynamic direction. It studies the ways and methods of influencing the human subconscious. The perception of a person can be divided into critical, i.e. conscious and subject to analysis and uncritical, unconscious. The task of the psychodynamic direction is to influence the uncritical perception of a person.
- Behaviorism, or psychology of behavior. Followers of this movement believe that a person’s consciousness and subconscious are substances that cannot be touched or seen. Therefore, they are unknowable. The only knowable aspect of human activity is his behavior. Every action has its own purpose. Each goal has its own incentive. Each stimulus has the potential for stimulating effects. The response to a stimulus is an action. Followers of behaviorism in advertising explore the possibilities of stimulating consumer behavior.
- Cognitive psychology or learning psychology. This direction considers a person as a researcher. It is believed that a person can always be taught something. This direction appeals to the rational component of the human psyche.
All of these areas have their limitations and only affect certain side human perception. But they are not mutually exclusive and can be combined.
- Advertising that offers satisfaction of needs that are significant at the moment;
- Advertising whose offers differ from others;
- Advertising that uses motives that people consciously or unconsciously expect to be addressed.
2. The use of unconscious motives in advertising;
According to Freud, the unconscious is a repository of suppressed and repressed primitive instincts, impulses, desires, emotions, and memories. It is not accessible to consciousness, but to a large extent determines the actions of people throughout life.
Unconscious impulses generate tension in a person. Freud called the release of this tension the pleasure principle. Since a person is not aware of the true unconscious urges, immediate discharge by directly satisfying them is impossible. It occurs with the help of protective mechanisms of consciousness. One of them is the direction of impulses coming from the unconscious into socially acceptable activity (sublimation).
- People with strong unconscious sadistic tendencies become, for example, surgeons;
- People with dominant aggression in the unconscious become bikers, extreme sports, and mercenary fighters.
The desire of the unconscious for open expression can receive short-term satisfaction in such forms as dreams, sexual fantasies, slips of the tongue, jokes, including shopping. In this case, the unconscious motive is expressed in the encoded symbolic form of so-called psychoanalytic symbols.
Sexual motives are most often used in advertising. The role of both conscious and unconscious sexual motives in advertising is constantly increasing. This is due to the so-called sexual revolution and the decrease in the number of ascetically raised people. The majority of participants in one survey, when asked “What would you do if the world ended?” They answered, “We’d like to have sex.”
Advertising that uses sexual motifs can be divided into advertising with overt (conscious) visual and verbal symbolism and advertising that contains psychoanalytic sexual symbols, perceived as such only unconsciously.
Classical psychoanalysis considers aggressiveness to be the second most important natural human instinct, repressed into the unconscious. Sublimated aggressive motifs are most often used in advertising of motorcycles, extreme sports equipment, cars, etc.
According to the psychoanalytic theory of personality, a person receives the first pleasure in his life in infancy from sucking his mother’s breast (the oral stage of human psychosexual development). According to Freud, the mouth remains an important erogenous zone throughout a person's life. This manifests itself in chewing gum, smoking, sucking on lollipops, and overeating. This motif can also be used in advertising. Many commercials advertising food products show their preparation and consumption in such a way that the audience's mouth waters, and there is a desire to receive "oral satisfaction" from consuming the advertised product.
The next important unconscious motive is the narcissism of the infant and the attitude of the parents towards the child. It is reflected in several manifestations. Over time, an infant’s narcissism goes deep into the subconscious and takes on completely unexpected forms. The attitude of loving parents towards a child is nothing more than the revival and reproduction of their own narcissism, which has long gone into the unconscious. Parents attribute to their child all the perfections that are not confirmed by sober observation. Professionally made advertising of children's products, aimed at parents, always receives a favorable response.
As a man grows up, his primary infantile narcissism is transferred to the sexual object – the woman. At the same time, there is also an overestimation of the object, which takes the form of falling in love. Research confirms that men are more amorous and slower to come out of this state.
Otherwise, a woman grows up and develops. During puberty, a woman's narcissism intensifies. In cases where this is accompanied by a “flourishing of beauty” (Freud’s expression), a woman’s self-satisfaction is developed. She loves herself with the same intensity with which a man loves her. She has no need to love. It is important for her to be loved.
Another type of woman takes a step in her development from secondary narcissism to love for a man. Until a certain period, they identified themselves with the male gender and were distinguished by masculine manifestations in character. After the onset of puberty, when these kinds of manifestations have disappeared, they develop an attraction to a certain masculine ideal - a continuation of the boyish creature they were before. The image of the father is important for this type of women.
Narcissism is the root cause of female exhibitionism. Almost every woman unconsciously wants to undress in a public place and enjoy the admiring glances of men.
The motifs of female narcissism and exhibitionism are successfully used in advertising products for women.
3. Lifestyle and pursuit of excellence in advertising
Lifestyle is the established forms of a person’s existence, which are expressed in his activities, leisure, interests, beliefs, i.e. relationships with the outside world.
Lifestyle, as a new concept in psychology, was introduced by Adler in his individual theory of personality. He believed that the fundamental law human life is his desire for superiority.
When positioning advertising by lifestyle, it is important to take into account the communication channel used for it. For example, an advertisement for cosmetics placed in Cosmopolitan magazine will be perceived as a high-end product, while in Lisa magazine it will be perceived as a consumer product.
4. Positioning of advertising according to Jung's typology
According to Jung's typology, there are two psychological types: introvert and extrovert. According to his theory, both orientations exist simultaneously in the human psyche, but one of them usually dominates.
An extrovert shows interest in to the outside world. He is active, talkative, sociable, lives in accordance with the requirements of the external environment, and refrains from any innovations that are incomprehensible to him.
An introvert is immersed in the inner world of his thoughts, feelings, experiences. He is contemplative, restrained, seeks solitude. As a rule, he has an increased level of brain activity. An introvert is a creator, an innovator.
Thinking and feeling are rational functions that allow us to judge life experience.
The thinking type judges things using logic and arguments. But a thinking extrovert judges external things this way, and a thinking introvert about inner world. Both of them are focused on constructing rational judgments. Men dominate among thinking types.
Feeling types focus their attention on the emotional side of life experience. Judges the value of things in the categories of “pleasant”, “good”, “bad”. Often suppresses thoughts that can destroy his feeling. Thinking plays a subordinate role. Among feeling types, women dominate.
The sensing type directly, non-judgmentally, but nevertheless realistically perceives the world. He is especially sensitive to taste, smell, heat, cold and other sensations coming from the outside world. Among the feeling types there are slightly more men than women.
An intuitive extrovert energetically and with great enthusiasm acquires new products in order to leave them indifferently or change them as soon as they find out the full range of their possibilities. For this type, information must be given in doses, constantly stirring up interest in the product.
An intuitive introvert is eccentric and keeps to himself. On the one hand, he is a mystical dreamer, a seer, on the other, an artist, an eccentric. For him, the main thing is creativity.
There are more women among intuitive types.
Pure types are rare in nature. Almost every property from the three pairs described above is found in every person. But one property in a pair always dominates the other.
5. Feminism in advertising
The feminist movement originated in the United States in the 60s and 70s. There it reached its greatest development, sometimes reaching the point of absurdity. This could not but affect the advertising industry. The most orthodox representatives of this movement protested against any manifestations of femininity and sexuality of women in advertising, considering them an insult and discrimination against women. As a result, images of women—mothers and housewives—disappeared from advertising in those years.
In Europe, feminism did not take such hypertrophied forms, so its influence in European advertising was weaker than overseas.
The 80s became a period of serious rethinking of gender relations in the United States. Sobering up began. American women were now portrayed as not only smart, successful, independent, but also sexy and feminine. Sexual motives were rehabilitated by the end of the 90s. images of women - mothers and women - housewives were also rehabilitated.
In the early 90s in the United States, for the first time, advertising of traditionally male products began to target women: sports shoes, condoms, beer...
TO beginning of XXI century, most men and women have discovered a strong need to preserve and emphasize gender differences.
6. Female images in advertising
In the 70s of the twentieth century, Cindy Sherman presented a series of her photographs to the public. Sherman photographed herself in various images that cinema, advertising and other types of mass communication offer to the modern woman. After shooting more than 60 self-portraits over several years, Sherman realized that she had become repetitive. This gave rise to the hypothesis that the set of female images used in the media is finite, just like the set of roles offered to women by modern society.
In order to test this hypothesis, in 2004 Tatyana Kotova selected the most striking images created by Cindy Sherman and tested them on 2000 Muscovites aged 25 to 45 years. It turned out that everything social roles offered by the media, women are divided into two groups. The division criteria are the "spectators" to whom these roles are intended. Some roles are for the so-called “evaluative environment”, others are for the “stable environment”.
The most important character in a woman's evaluative environment is not the man she loves, but the woman with whom she competes. All advertising images are divided by women into those that correspond to the evaluating environment and those that are desirable for demonstration to a stable environment.
The hypothesis that the more naked, the sexier, and therefore the more suitable for demonstration to the evaluating environment, was not confirmed. A completely different parameter came to the fore - “self-confidence”.
The kiss causes modern woman ambiguous emotions. An image of a man kissing a woman is perceived worse than one in which the woman is dominant. The images where men act as extras, emphasizing the independence and superiority of women turned out to be attractive
7. Advertising for teenagers
One of the most significant achievements of psychologist E. Erikson is a detailed examination of the teenage (youthful) stage of human psychosocial development.
At this stage, an ideal picture of the world is formed in the human mind. This formation is accompanied by conflicts with parents, teachers and other people who, according to the teenager, are the bearers of the past.
At the age of 12-13, a teenager begins to realize that he is no longer a child, as he is capable of quite adequate assessments of the surrounding reality. At the same time, he subconsciously feels that he is not yet an adult, because he does not know where to go, what to do, what idea to choose, who to become in the future.
This period (identity crisis) ends when young people finally decide who they will become in the future and what place they will take in society. Then they gain a sense of their own worth and belonging to the world and people.
As a result of the study, which involved 27,000 teenagers from 44 countries, six clearly defined value segments were expressed, into which the vast majority of young people are united.
- Thrill seekers (18%). Driving principles: fun, excitement, irreverence, friends. They expect everything at once. They have money and they like to spend it. This category of teenagers can develop loyalty to a product if the advertisement for this product speaks their language.
- Disengaged (14%). Driving principles: fun, friends, low expectations. More often than others, they feel a lack of money. They treat generally accepted values, pomposity, and excessive optimism with cynicism. They like ironic advertising that makes fun of pomp. It can draw their attention to those products that they are able to buy.
- Saviors of the world (12%). Defining principles: environment, humanism, fun, friends. They are not indifferent to the pressing problems of our time and have their own opinions on many issues, which they can give reasons for. Active, intelligent, receptive to new things. They have a sense of humor and lead. They have a negative attitude towards ridiculing and humiliating others. Hope and conscience of the next generation. They positively perceive advertising that emphasizes the positive aspects of using the product. They have a positive attitude towards social advertising.
- Quietly achieving (15%) defining principles: success, anonymity, anti-individualism, social optimism. They move through life decisively, but still with restraint. Shocking is not their style. All their attention is concentrated on their studies. Even if they have free money, they buy only the essentials. This indicates limited interests, not stinginess. They will be interested in offering products that will help them achieve their goals.
- Those who achieve independently (14%). Defining principles: individualism, achievement, determination, power, optimism. They are determined to succeed in life and in this aspect they lead among their peers. Among this category of teenagers, products that are associated in their minds with the “values of a good life” are successful.
- Supporters (16%). Defining principles: family, traditions, customs, respect for the individual. The most infantile teenagers; quiet and positive, planning to follow in the footsteps of their parents. They prefer products with a reliable reputation. Advertising new products is unattractive for them.
8. Reinforcement and learning (behaviorism)
Behaviorism is a direction in American psychology of the twentieth century that denies consciousness and the unconscious as a subject. scientific research and reducing the psyche of people to various forms behavior, understood as a set of reactions of the body to environmental stimuli. The basic concept of behaviorism is expressed by the “stimulus-response” scheme, and the nature of the reaction is determined only by the stimulus. However, many supporters of behaviorism considered this scheme too primitive. E. Tolman introduced a single amendment to the scheme by placing the middle link - intermediate variables. The scheme took the form “stimulus – intermediate variables – response”. Intermediate variables are internal processes that influence a person’s external behavior. These are goals, intentions, motives, etc.
The main drawback of behaviorism is the underestimation of complex human mental activity. However, the “stimulus-motive-response” scheme has practical rationale. In order for a person to buy a product (reaction), he must first learn about the product (stimulus), and secondly have a motive to buy (internal variable). But you shouldn't judge a person's motives by his final behavior. Motives need to be found in advance and an advertising offer built around them.
For the effectiveness of repeat sales, the consequences of the first purchase are important. Attitudes based on experience are more rigid, stable and less susceptible to change due to additional advertising attacks.
In advertising and marketing, the concept of behaviorism about the ability to control behavior through positive reinforcement is widely used. Discounts, bonuses, prizes, etc. additionally motivate people to buy.
9. Gestalt psychology
It originated in Germany in the first third of the 20th century and put forward a program for studying the psyche from the point of view of integral structures - gestalts. According to theorists, the world consists of organized forms, and the perception of the world by a person is also organized: the whole (Gestalt) is perceived, and not just the sum of its parts. The properties of an object cannot be described in terms of the properties of its parts. The human map of perception has such a feature that the whole is perceived first, and then the parts. Therefore, in order for advertising to be effective, you must always start with the whole, the main thing, and only then move on to particulars.
The most important in Gestalt psychology are the concepts of figure and background, which were introduced by the Danish psychologist E. Rubin. In visual perception, the background always plays the role of a reference system, against which the characteristics of the figure are evaluated. Distinguishing the figure from the background is a biological necessity. Any, even a flat image, when perceived, is stratified into a figure and a background. Everything that is remembered first when an object is reproduced in memory is a figure. Everything else is background. People perceive the figure always pushed forward, and the background pushed back. The figure is richer in content and brighter than the background.
Throughout a person's life, there is a continuous accumulation of experience, an analysis of the behavior of others, knowledge, acceptance or denial of something. New forms of behavior can be acquired in the absence of personal experience through observation of others.
Given this, it is necessary to be very careful with promises in an advertisement, since deceived expectations cause irritation and distrust of the consumer. A frustrated consumer shares his experience with his friends, acquaintances, relatives, and those with their own. As a result, we have a long chain of anti-advertising, which in its impact is much stronger than any advertising company.
Particular attention should be paid to the personality of the person (model), whose experience we accept on the basis of observation. Models presented by competent people, experts, celebrities or stars attract more attention.
The main criterion in choosing a model is appearance. Research confirms that beautiful people are perceived as sexier, more sympathetic, kind, interesting, strong, balanced, outgoing, friendly, etc. Gender in this case does not matter.
In addition to appearance, it is necessary to take into account the image of the model. The model must have a social community with target audience. The power of persuasion in many cases depends on the status and authority of the persuader. The competence of the model should not raise the slightest doubt. If the model is not known to the general public, it is necessary to provide information confirming its competence in this matter.
The age of the model is also important. There is an interesting feature here. From age 30 onwards, most people unconsciously identify with people 10 years younger than themselves, regardless of gender.
IN Lately Such a trend as product placement has become widespread - the use of goods in films and television programs in order to increase their attractiveness. Productplacement allows you to less intrusively show the product in its immediate use.
11. Diversity of perception and assessment of reality.
The difference between people is that they interpret events from different angles from the “bell tower” of their unique personal construct. A person judges his world with the help of systems or models (personal constructs) that are understandable only to him, which he creates himself and then adapts them to objective reality. For the most effective social interaction, it is necessary to psychologically put oneself in the place of another in order to understand and predict his behavior. It is necessary to look at the product not through the eyes of the seller, but through the eyes of the buyer.
Another tenet of Kelly's theory is that people are primarily focused on future events in their lives. Therefore, a video or illustration in print should demonstrate the future that awaits the consumer after purchasing the product.
All personal constructs are divided into permeable, partially permeable and impenetrable.
A permeable construct allows for new, not yet interpreted or evaluated phenomena, theories or ideas.
A partially permeable design is typical for cautious people. They usually wait a long time for new products to be tested.
An impenetrable construct embraces only that which constitutes its original basis. He remains tightly closed to the interpretation of any new experience.
12. Interference in advertising.
Proactive interference is characterized by a deterioration in the memorability of new advertising information under the influence of previously received information.
Retroactive interference is characterized by a deterioration in memorability under the influence of information received later.
Selective interference is expressed as a delay in the perception of information as a result of the influence of words, images and colors present in the message. Has the most harmful effect on perception.
Cognitive marketing, as a separate area of the economic discipline of “marketing”, began to develop, research and gain popularity only at the beginning of the 21st century. The origins are 2 logical components: cognitive psychology and marketing. Let us turn to the history of the first source, trace the evolution of the development of the direction and define the main postulates.
Cognitive psychology is a section of general psychology, the field of study of which is cognitive processes (“Cognitio” - knowledge) of the human psyche: perception, sensation, memory, attention, logical thinking, imagination. The main feature of the cognitive approach is the mechanisms of data processing, knowledge, is considered as a central link in the human psyche.
The origins of cognitive psychology, like many other sciences, go back to antiquity, building on the works of ancient philosophers Democritus, Plato and Aristotle. However, a significant shift in the development of the direction occurred in the 30-50s of the twentieth century. The scientific community was, conditionally, divided into two fronts (behaviorists and Gestalt psychologists), in the process of which the structure of the discipline was formed. Let's look at each of the directions in more detail and highlight the main ideas promoted by supporters. In the future, the basic principles will be used to improve existing brand promotion tools.
The first school that will be considered by the author is behaviorism (from the English behavior - behavior), the leading direction in American psychology (20s of the twentieth century), which had a significant influence on all disciplines related to the study of man. Behaviorism is based on an understanding of human and animal behavior as a set of motor and reducible verbal and emotional responses (reactions) to influences (stimuli) of the external environment. The founder of the approach is psychologist John B. Watson, who, in his article “Psychology as the Behaviorist Views it,” sets out a manifesto for the new school. The main theses of behaviorism are:
- ? human behavior is a reaction to stimuli; behavior is the result of learning, therefore, learning occurs according to the “stimulus-response” algorithm;
- ? development of a conditioned reflex as the basis of learning;
- ? “psychology without psyche” (identity of psyche and consciousness);
- ? the dominance of external processes over internal ones (the environment shapes the human psyche);
- ? the principle of “Trial and error” - to adapt, a person needs to gain experience interacting with the environment, part of which are errors;
The thesis “psychology without psyche” assumes that the psyche is identical to consciousness. The psyche is understood as a set of mental processes and phenomena (sensations, perceptions, emotions, memory, etc.). Consciousness is the highest form of the psyche, which is inherent only to man. Thus, behaviorists transferred all the behavioral reactions of animals to the human psyche, without considering the important function of consciousness - intellectual activity. In other words, marketers using the behaviorist approach view the consumer only from the point of view of an animal, living by instincts, reflexes, without using its consciousness.
Behaviorists changed the qualitative understanding of the psyche. The idea was that a person, like a white rat caught in a maze, must, with the help of incentives (based on the desire to survive, primary needs according to Maslow), activate his brain processes and find a way out. Tolman and Hull, as the founders of neobehaviorism, proposed the concept of “mediators,” intermediate internal processes occurring between stimulus and response. According to Tolman, an acting organism has a certain purpose, i.e. mental "mental" education, which does not coincide with classical theory behavior. “Goal” are intermediate variables that determine human behavior along with incentives. During experiments on rats who had to find a way out of a plus maze, E. Tolman came to the conclusion that the body does not remember a combination of stimuli and reactions, but forms an internal “cognitive map”. Its presence allows you to find the goal in different ways, regardless of the entry point. This theory served as the starting point for the research of K. Lewin and his “psychological fields.” In marketing, the psychological field is the consumer experience in using a product, service, relationship with the seller, staff and companies in general, which reflects the buyer’s attitude to the place of sale, the conditions of purchase, as well as to the company’s values, and therefore to identity and image brand.
The thesis “the principle of trial and error” put forward by Thorndike means that a model of human behavior is formed under the influence of external factors. As a result of gaining experience, an understanding of successful and unsuccessful reactions is developed, which are subsequently transformed into reflexes. According to behaviorists, human behavior is based on successful reactions, actions that cause a favorable result. A successful reaction is consolidated and tends to be reproduced - the “Law of Effect”. Consolidation of reactions obeys the “law of exercise,” or in other words, repeated repetition of the same reactions to incoming stimuli leads to their automation. If, after consuming a product or service, the buyer is satisfied, his needs are partially or fully satisfied, then he will have a desire to buy it again. Frequency of purchases may indicate the buyer's reflexivity to the stimulus (for example, television advertising), as well as high brand loyalty.
In other words, a person, like an animal, can develop a reflex. In classical teaching (Pavlovian teaching), there are 2 types of reflexes: conditioned reflex and unconditioned reflex. The “response-stimulus” algorithm is based on associations, in which the body establishes connections between different stimuli. In experiments with animals, the neutral stimulus was a “ringing” (a bell) after which food was served: the unconditioned stimulus of chewing causes a salivation reaction. Thus, unconditioned reflexes turn into conditioned reflexes when the animal associates the sound of the bell with the upcoming meal and reacts accordingly.
The author believes that by using the “conditioned reflex” approach in marketing (branding), the consumer can develop the necessary reaction to the brand: tools marketing communications(external stimuli) are aimed at evoking, stimulating a consumer response - the desire to purchase a product or service. IN modern society the buyer has become more aware of this issue, and has become more cautious about traditional methods promotion. This means that the means of external influence on the consumer must be replaced with tools that stimulate internal motivation to purchase. Therefore, let us turn to the second direction that participated in the development of cognitive psychology - Gestalt psychology.
If behaviorism arose and developed in the United States, then Gestalt psychology, as a direction of psychology, originated in Germany in the 20s, and gained popularity throughout Europe. Gestalt psychology was formed as an opposition to the associative psychology proposed by behaviorists. M. Wertheimer, W. Köhler, K. Koffka, K. Levin and others put forward the principle of integrity as the main principle of perception (and then other mental processes), contrasting it with the associative principle of elements. They proceeded from the position that all processes in nature are initially integral. For the brand, as well as for the entire company, the principle of integrity is more important than ever: from the unity of the system
Gestaltists took into account such mental processes as perception, thinking, needs, affects, will, motivation. The holistic approach, as V.N. Sadovsky notes, was proclaimed not only as a method for studying psychological phenomena, but also as new paradigm scientific research in general. Subsequently, supporters of the school sought to subordinate the theories of Gestalt and the entire physical world
A holistic structure is called “gestalt” (from German Gestalt - figure, form, configuration), the properties of which are not the sum of the properties of their parts. In other words, Gestalt is a unit of analysis of the psyche (consciousness), when used, a holistic picture of mental processes is first read, which determines the meaning of individual details.
With their theory, Gestaltists refute the concept of cognition previously put forward by behaviorists, the meaning of which was that the psyche is built on the basis of new associative connections (the connection of elements with each other), which serve as conditions for the flow of cognitive processes. Instead, the opinion was put forward that cognition is determined by change, transformation of integral gestalts, which determine the nature of perception of the surrounding world and the behavior of the organism in it. Therefore, many supporters of this direction paid attention to the mental development of a person, since knowledge of the external environment and self-development are associated with differentiation and strengthening of gestalts.
The founder of the concept of gestalt and direction in general is considered to be the German psychologist Max Wertheimer, who was deeply involved in the study of visual perception. He believed that it was this cognitive process that determined the level of development of the psyche and determined the patterns of the general course of mental activity of consciousness. In his key work“Productive Thinking” he formulated the basic postulates of Gestalt psychology. In Table 4, the author compares the principles, theses and ideas of 2 areas of cognitive psychology in order to clearly trace the evolution of views on mental processes. This comparison will allow us to determine how human behavior, and therefore consumer behavior too, is formed and works from the point of view of the 2 approaches.
Thus, we can conclude that the school of behaviorism, as a result of a long study and justification of its theory of “conditioned reflexes” (Stimulus-response), came to the conclusion that there is an intermediate mental element that passes through itself the stimulus impulse and the return signal of the reaction. Tolman defined this component as the goal. In marketing, there is a theory about consumer goal orientation, which reveals how a goal influences the buyer’s behavior on the way to satisfying a need.
The Gestaltists went further and brought out the whole complex internal factors, driving a person, such as motivation, will. In marketing, an important fact is the creation intrinsic motivation consumer to interact with the brand, which subsequently stimulates his desire to purchase the product. Another important component, according to the author, is consumer experience, a set of “trials and errors” in using a product or service, which plays an important role in shaping the overall gestalt of the brand. R. Ufimtsev within marketing sphere, reasons that a company's current advertising activities are always on the same cognitive shelf as what it has done in the past. In other words, the present and the past have almost the same influence on the formation general perception, the general gestalt of the brand.
Unlike behaviorists, supporters of the Gestalt school viewed all perceptual processes (perception) as innate skills of the body. Visual perception has been studied in particular detail. Using simple examples with geometric figures, M. Wertheimer and his supporters explained the basic principles of the perceptual system, and later other cognitive processes. Since one of the leading ideas of Gestalt psychology is that mental structures are formed in the form of various schemes in the mental field, M. Wertheimer believed that the elements of the "field" are combined into a structure depending on such relationships as proximity, similarity, isolation, simplicity, symmetry and others. Thus, a list of principles for grouping elements into gestalts was compiled (see Table 1.4).
Particular attention should be paid to the principle of a good gestalt. M. Wertheimer discovered that there are "good" gestalts - configurations that are attractive, convenient for people to perceive, "bad" - faceless, hardly kept in the focus of vision. A brand, as a set of identification features, values, personality, is only a unit of a common branding gestalt, which also includes employees, office, suppliers, distributors, corporate culture, experience, history and most importantly, all the interactions between these elements. A strong brand must have a good gestalt, it must be perceived as an integral system in individual and collective spaces. A brand with a bad gestalt is lost in the market, subsequently forgotten and disappears. This situation occurs when advertising texts do not correspond to what the employee of the company (seller), the person providing the service says.
The considered principles are basic, which served as a starting point for the development of broader and deeper concepts of Gestalt psychology and cognitive psychology in general. How these principles of cognitive psychology are implemented in marketing will be discussed further. But first, it is necessary to identify the most important theories of cognitive psychology that have become the foundation of cognitive marketing.
Supporters of the Gestalt school combined in their theory the principles of grouping elements into systems with concepts borrowed from physics (the nature of the atom, magnetism, the laws of the physical field), thus developing concepts that were unique for that time. These are the theories of "psychological field" by K. Levin, "insight" by K. Koehler and the principle of dominance by A.A. Ukhovsky.
K. Lewin, a student of M. Wertheimer, is considered the leading scientist of the German trend, who introduced the term “psychological field” and developed the theory of “personality field” (Force field anylisis). Levin sought through his work to explain the essence of the process of human interaction with the environment. In the process of working on the concept of personality, K. Levin came to the conclusion that personality lives and develops in a psychological field consisting of the things around him, each of which has its own charge, valence. For each person, there are 2 types of charges contained in objects: different, depending on the tension that arises within the individual when interacting with these objects; similar, when objects have the same valence for all people. K. Levin calls tension a need that a person wants to satisfy, i.e. seeks to eliminate, relieve tension. Thus, the basis of the theory is the homeostatic approach, the meaning of which is that any open system strives to maintain the constancy of its internal state. In marketing theory, a person is a consumer who has needs ( internal tension), to satisfy which goods with a charge of energy are purchased: the higher the valence of a particular product (brand), the more attractive it is to the buyer. The task of marketers is to determine the amount of brand charge (its strength) and develop a strategy for increasing it.
K. Levin singled out 2 systems within the framework of his “psychological field theory” and “personality field”: personality and environment. In marketing, this is, respectively, the market, the inner circle (friends, relatives, neighbors, colleagues, etc.) and the consumer, the client. These systems interact in a person's living space - a set of real and unreal (desires, expectations, images of objects, dreams), actual, past, future events (facts) that are in the individual's psychological space at the moment. The psychological space consists of regions, sectors, events and facts that have boundaries.
The fact of living space is the smallest component of the field, denoting everything that can be realized by a person. An event is the result of the interaction of several facts in a living space. Events are combined into sectors and then into regions - "cells", as Neil R. and C. Donald calls them, which are human needs. Soviet psychologists, A.N. Leontyev and S.L. Rubinstein believe that a need is an unconscious desire to eliminate discomfort (hunger, heat), where a conscious, “objectified need” is a motive (K. Levin was of the same opinion) - a desire to satisfy hunger, and the goal, as the most formed landmark, acts as a tool (way) to achieve a feeling of satisfaction (food, water).
In order to determine the reason for dissatisfaction, Academician P.V. Simonov proposed a formula for the resulting emotion (final reaction, perception) after using the means to achieve the "goal":
Emotion = - Need * (I1 - I2),
where I1, I2 are information “before” and “after” the occurrence of an important event for a person. If the information “after” turned out to be more (more important, stronger) than “before”, then the person experiences positive emotions, otherwise not. In cognitive psychology, this principle is called the "montage effect" (or the principle of "self-similarity"). In promoting the brand, it plays an important role, and has a strong impact on the personal field.
Thus, the personality field theory, together with the “psychological field” approach, provides a scientific explanation for such a phenomenon as need. K. Lewin moves away from the use of gestalts in his concept, but his approach is based on the idea that behavior is based on the fact of interaction between the individual and the environment (the integrity of the field, its internal and external). Neil R. and C. Donald support K. Lewin’s idea and add that ordinary things (products, services) are not so important for research as the relationship between them and personality. That is, it is important for marketers not just to create a product (brand), but to build a relationship between it and the buyer. By familiarizing the client with the peculiarities of consumption (technology) of the product and training him, it is possible to achieve a new reaction even to ordinary goods. But any consumption (consumption culture) is associated with stereotypes that exist in a person's living space. They form his basic attitudes, the buyer's attitudes, his "subjective view", which affects the integrity of the picture he perceives regarding a particular brand. Stereotypes are locomotions described by K. Levin, which can be positive and negative (attract, repel). Stereotypes influence consumer decision making, as do cognitive dominants, which need to be considered in more detail.
The principle of “dominant” (cognitive dominant) was described in the works of the Soviet scientist A.A. Ukhtomsky. This approach is actively used in advertising and PR, and it served as the basis for the AIDA model. The meaning of the principle is that there is a certain energetic focus of excitation that maximally attracts (holds) our perception and attention. Dominants (expressed and latent) influence the holistic perception of a person, focus his attention on a specific object, from which all other information about other things (people, phenomena, etc.) is either distorted, ignored, or generalized. For marketers, this principle is useful because , that by “touching” the consumer’s dominant, which has strong energy (for example, being healthy), supporting it and thus creating a limiting barrier to competitive advertising: the consumer will think only about his dominant and will look for a solution to satisfy his need (like , for example, toothache, when everything else becomes less important). In addition, the dominant tends to attract various stimuli (which may not relate to the dominant), thus being fueled by them, which can lead to “illumination”, insight (for example, the periodic table that came to the creator in a dream: the dominant “search for a solution” attracted unknown facts, information that led to the discovery). By “insight” we mean the sudden emergence of a solution to a given problem (a way to satisfy a need). Professor Köhler introduced and described this phenomenon as a result of experiments on chimpanzees: the animal found a method for getting an orange suspended from the ceiling when it saw all the things (boxes) lying around, thanks to which it instantly found a solution. Thus, the Gestaltists refuted the previously put forward thesis of the behaviorists about “trial and error”
Stereotypes, as products of social consciousness (collective consciousness), are stable constructs that are combined into social myths, memes and form a common social paradigm. Collective consciousness in cognitive marketing is called the “cognitive ether.”
Being one of the fundamental concepts in organic logic, it represents a dynamic environment that exists at the cognitive level of reality (except for the material and informational level). The air collects ideas, concepts, theories, thoughts, attitudes, beliefs, myths, knowledge, memes, paradigms, which influence the social environment. R. Ufimtsev approached the study of the cognitive ether from the perspective of complex systems (Complexity Science), relying on the studies in this area of such scientists as P. Cilliers and D. J. Snowden. The ether, as a complex system, is formed by a huge number of elements, is saturated with connections (linear and nonlinear), and has certain properties and signs, the main ones of which are:
- ? Tendency to chaotic self-education (building structures) and self-organization;
- ? Over a long period of time, it has unpredictable development dynamics;
- ? Heterogeneity of the structure: the presence of “deaf” and hypersensitive areas;
The cognitive ether is capable of independently regulating the structure of its structure, and even in the case of an absolutely disordered organization, it takes a certain form. At the same time, the dynamics of the development of the ether has a fluctuational character (with oscillations), which means an abrupt speed of the appearance of new elements and the establishment of connections between them and already existing parts of the system. In addition, parts of the system tend to react differently to the emergence of new elements (some establish communication faster, others refuse to set up communication),
An obvious example of a complex system is social network, which, within the framework of marketing, reflects interpersonal communications between the company and the market. The cognitive ether acts as a deeper structure than ordinary interpersonal communication (between 2 or more people). There are two levels of communication (communication with the world): the sign level - the world as a text, the knowledge of which requires analyzing its elements, which are transformed into words consisting of words, symbols, diagrams; figurative level - people perceive the world holistically and experience it in the form of emotions, sensations, insights, images. Thus, we can identify the main features of the cognitive ether:
- ? The airwaves have multi-layered communications: the transfer of information occurs at several levels (physical, informational, cognitive), despite the fact that some of the communications will occur outside the consciousness of the participants;
- ? Behavior is a message. Details of behavior are components of a conscious or unconscious message addressed to someone personally or sent to everyone in the cognitive ether;
- ? In the cognitive ether, elements set up communication with each other using not symbolic information, texts, but with the help of “figurative information” (feelings, emotions, abstract subjective constructs), which in most cases is transmitted on an unconscious level;
Based on the concept of the “collective unconscious” by G. Jung, scientists have determined that the cognitive ether is transpersonal: the absence of attachment to the consciousness of a particular person. If in reality people are separated by material and even information barriers, then at the cognitive level people are weakly isolated from each other, which allows them to connect (set up communication) in a cognitive environment. F. Kotler proposed the “socio-economic environment” (SEE) model in order to explain the process of information exchange between customers, a company, and how the environment influences these interactions. In addition, it is worth noting that F. Kotler already in the 70s turned to the principle of integrity of M. Wertheim, and put forward the idea that a holistic approach would be advanced in modern marketing and management.
Thus, having considered the main provisions of cognitive psychology, the principles of the Gestalt school, as the basis of the science of knowledge, it is necessary to combine the data obtained into one comprehensive discipline - cognitive marketing. At the moment, there is no one exact formulation of this direction in the discipline of “marketing”, so the author will consider 2 relatively similar positions and views on this subject of research.
Yuldasheva O.U. believes that the goal of marketing within the framework of the “cognitive marketing concept” is to create potential demand for the company’s goods and services through the formation of a certain type of consumer consciousness, which determines the structure of the goods consumed by him. She argues that it is important to be updated on the emotions of the consumer, because this is the basis of demand, and lay in the minds of the consumer future satisfaction from consuming the product. The author believes that the consumer’s consciousness is formed under the influence of psychological dominants, stereotypes, myths and memes, which are located in the collective social consciousness (cognitive ether). Future customer satisfaction is affected by great amount internal (dominants, stereotypes, beliefs) and external factors (crisis, natural disasters) that the company is not able to control, which means you need to look for other ways to interact with the consumer. But in general, taking into account Yuldasheva’s position, the author can do next output regarding the purpose of cognitive marketing: the success of brand promotion depends on the “social” foundation (stereotypes, myths) on which it is built; the chosen sustainable construct must fit into the social paradigm of public consciousness, thus, the technology of consumption (culture) will be within reach for the consumer, and the company will be able to “train” its customers in this.
The second view of cognitive marketing is the concept of "internal marketing" by R. Ufimtsev. In another way, he calls “intramarketing” (from the Greek “intra” - internal), a direction of marketing aimed at studying the holistic perception of things and the environment: the company and its environment. The main thesis of the supporters of this approach is that the company and the market are in a mutual projection: external environment (living space personality), influences (projects) what is happening in the company (personal space), and the company is capable of its internal state reflect on the essence of the market, influence its processes. The connection between the company and the market is carried out via cognitive ether.
Stereotypes are important components of gestalts that influence people’s thinking, behavior, attitudes and attitudes towards certain social events, as well as towards specific products and brands. Thus, the task of cognitive marketing (intramarketing) is to develop methods for “incorporating” a company or brand into stable configurations of the cognitive ether in such a way that it contributes to the growth of demand, loyalty, awareness, and at the same time excluding configurations that adversely affect the holistic perception of the brand.
- ? The theories of Gestaltists and behaviorists played a significant role in the development of cognitive marketing: the basic principles of the school of M. Wertheim, cognitive maps of E. Tolman, the theory of the “psychological field” (“personality field”) of K. Levin and the theory of “dominants” of A.A. Ukhovsky. As a result, such concepts as “complex systems”, “cognitive ether”, “stable configurations”, “psychological dominants” were identified.
- ? Cognitive marketing is aimed at “inclusion” of the company in the collective consciousness of buyers (cognitive ether), through the use of social myths (gestalts) and with the help of stereotypes (attitudes, views) that can influence the inhabitants of the social - cognitive space: they change the perception of the brand, culture consumption of goods.
- ? A strong brand must have a good gestalt, which is expressed in a relevantly created identity, formed on a social myth, meme, and which connects the company with other elements (consumers, suppliers, distributors, etc.) located in the cognitive ether;
- ? In order to gain a significant foothold in the market (become a leader), it is necessary to approach the creation of a brand and the company as a whole holistically: pay attention not to individual parts, but to the unity of all components that make up the overall impression (picture) of the company;
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