St. Petersburg State

architectural and civil engineering university.

Department of Political Science.

On the topic of: « Social institutions of society”.

IV year student, gr. 2IP

Faculty of Civil Engineering: Piskunov G.M.

Head: Lokushansky I.N.

Saint Petersburg

Plan.

I) Introduction.

II) 1. The concept of "Social institution".

2. The evolution of social institutions.

3. Typology of social institutions.

4. Functions and dysfunctions of social institutions.

5. Education as a social institution.

III) Conclusion.

Introduction.

Social practice shows that it is vital for human society to consolidate certain types social relations, to make them obligatory for members of a certain society or a certain social group. This primarily applies to those social relations, entering into which the members of a social group ensure the satisfaction of the most important needs necessary for the successful functioning of the group as an integral social unit. Thus, the need for the reproduction of material goods forces people to consolidate and maintain production relations; the need to socialize the younger generation and educate young people on the samples of the culture of the group makes it necessary to consolidate and maintain family relations, the relationship of training young people.

The practice of consolidating relationships aimed at meeting urgent needs consists in creating a rigidly fixed system of roles and statuses that prescribe rules of behavior for individuals in social relations, as well as in determining a system of sanctions in order to achieve strict compliance with these rules of behavior.

Systems of roles, statuses and sanctions are created in the form of social institutions, which are the most complex and important types of social ties for society. It is social institutions that support joint cooperative activities in organizations, determine sustainable patterns of behavior, ideas and incentives.

The concept of "institution" is one of the central ones in sociology, therefore the study of institutional relations is one of the main scientific tasks facing sociologists.

The concept of "social institution".

The term "social institution" is used in a wide variety of meanings.

One of the first detailed definition of a social institution was given by the American sociologist and economist T. Veblen. He viewed the evolution of society as a process of natural selection of social institutions. By their nature, they represent habitual ways of responding to stimuli that are created by external changes.

Another American sociologist, C. Mills, understood the institution as the form of a certain set of social roles. He classified institutions according to the tasks performed (religious, military, educational, etc.) that form the institutional order.

The German sociologist A. Gehlen interprets an institution as a regulatory institution that directs people's actions in a certain direction, just as institutions control the behavior of animals.

According to L. Bovier, a social institution is a system of cultural elements focused on meeting a set of specific social needs or goals.

J. Bernard and L. Thompson interpret the institution as a set of norms and patterns of behavior. This is a complex configuration of customs, traditions, beliefs, attitudes, laws that have a specific purpose and perform specific functions.

In domestic sociological literature, a social institution is defined as the main component of the social structure of society, integrating and coordinating many individual actions of people, streamlining social relations in certain areas of public life.

According to S.S. Frolov, a social institution is an organized system of connections and social norms that combines significant social values ​​and procedures that meet the basic needs of society.

According to M.S. Komarov, social institutions are value-normative complexes through which the actions of people in vital areas - the economy, politics, culture, family, etc. are directed and controlled.

If we sum up all the variety of the above approaches, then a social institution is:

Role system, which also includes norms and statuses;

A set of customs, traditions and rules of conduct;

Formal and informal organization;

A set of norms and institutions governing a particular area

public relations;

A separate set of social actions.

That. we see that the term "social institution" can have different definitions:

A social institution is an organized association of people performing certain socially significant functions, ensuring the joint achievement of goals based on the members of their social roles, set by social values, norms and patterns of behavior.

Social institutions are institutions designed to meet the fundamental needs of society.

A social institution is a set of norms and institutions that regulate a certain area of ​​social relations.

A social institution is an organized system of connections and social norms that combines significant social values ​​and procedures that meet the basic needs of society.

The evolution of social institutions.

The process of institutionalization, i.e. formation of a social institution, consists of several successive stages:

The emergence of a need, the satisfaction of which requires joint organized action;

Formation of common goals;

The emergence of social norms and rules in the course of spontaneous social interaction, carried out by trial and error;

The emergence of procedures related to rules and regulations;

Institutionalization of norms and rules, procedures, i.e. their adoption, practical application;

Establishment of a system of sanctions to maintain norms and rules, differentiation of their application in individual cases;

Creation of a system of statuses and roles covering all members of the institute without exception.

The birth and death of a social institution are clearly visible in the example of the institution of noble duels of honor. Duels were an institutionalized method of sorting out relations between nobles in the period from the 16th to the 18th centuries. This institution of honor arose due to the need to protect the honor of a nobleman and streamline relations between representatives of this social stratum. Gradually, the system of procedures and norms developed and spontaneous quarrels and scandals turned into highly formalized fights and fights with specialized roles (chief manager, seconds, doctors, attendants). This institution supported the ideology of unsullied noble honor, adopted mainly in the privileged strata of society. The institution of duels provided for fairly strict standards for protecting the code of honor: a nobleman who received a challenge to a duel had to either accept the challenge or leave public life with the shameful stigma of cowardly cowardice. But with the development of capitalist relations, the ethical standards in society, which was expressed, in particular, in the uselessness of defending the honor of the nobility with weapons in their hands. An example of the decline of the institution of duels is the absurd choice of dueling weapons by Abraham Lincoln: throwing potatoes from a distance of 20 m. So this institution gradually ceased to exist.

Typology of social institutions.

A social institution is divided into main (basic, fundamental) and non-main (non-main, frequent). The latter hide inside the former, being part of them as smaller formations.

In addition to dividing institutions into main and non-main ones, they can be classified according to other criteria. For example, institutions can differ in the time of their emergence and duration of existence (permanent and short-term institutions), the severity of sanctions applied for violations of the rules, the conditions of existence, the presence or absence of a bureaucratic management system, the presence or absence of formal rules and procedures.

Ch. Mills counted five institutional orders in modern society, in fact, meaning by this the main institutions:

Economic - institutions that organize economic activity;

Political - institutions of power;

Family - institutions that regulate sexual relations, the birth and socialization of children;

Military - institutions that protect members of society from physical danger;

Religious - institutions that organize the collective worship of the gods.

The purpose of social institutions is to satisfy the most important vital needs of society as a whole. Five such basic needs are known, they correspond to five basic social institutions:

The need for the reproduction of the genus (the institution of family and marriage).

The need for security and social order (the institution of the state and other political institutions).

The need to obtain and produce means of subsistence (economic institutions).

The need for the transfer of knowledge, the socialization of the younger generation, the training of personnel (institute of education).

The need for solving spiritual problems, the meaning of life (Institute of Religion).

Non-core institutions are also called social practices. Each major institution has its own systems of established practices, methods, techniques, procedures. Thus, economic institutions cannot do without such mechanisms and practices as currency conversion, protection of private property,

professional selection, placement and evaluation of the work of employees, marketing,

market, etc. Within the institution of family and marriage there are institutions of paternity and motherhood, naming, family revenge, inheritance of the social status of parents, etc.

Non-principal political institutions include, for example, the institutions of forensic examination, passport registration, legal proceedings, advocacy, juries, judicial control of arrests, the judiciary, the presidency, etc.

Everyday practices that help organize the concerted action of large groups of people bring certainty and predictability to social reality, thereby supporting the existence of social institutions.

Functions and dysfunctions of social institutions.

Function(from Latin - execution, implementation) - the appointment or role that a certain social institution or process performs in relation to the whole (for example, the function of the state, family, etc. in society.)

Function a social institution is the benefit that it brings to society, i.e. it is a set of tasks to be solved, goals to be achieved, services to be rendered.

The first and most important mission of social institutions is to meet the most important vital needs of society, i.e. without which society cannot exist as a current one. Indeed, if we want to understand what the essence of the function of this or that institution is, we must directly connect it with the satisfaction of needs. E. Durheim was one of the first to point out this connection: “To ask what is the function of the division of labor means to investigate what need it corresponds to.”

No society can exist if it does not constantly replenish with new generations of people, obtain food, live in peace and order, acquire new knowledge and pass it on to the next generations, deal with spiritual issues.

List of universal, i.e. functions inherent in all institutions can be continued by including in it the function of consolidating and reproducing social relations, regulatory, integrative, broadcasting and communicative functions.

Along with universal, there are specific functions. These are functions that are inherent in some institutions and are not characteristic of others, for example, establishing order in society (the state), discovering and transferring new knowledge (science and education), etc.

Society is arranged in such a way that a number of institutions perform several functions simultaneously, and at the same time, several institutions can specialize in the performance of one function at once. For example, the function of educating or socializing children is performed by such institutions as the family, church, school, state. At the same time, the institution of the family performs not only the function of education and socialization, but also such functions as the reproduction of people, satisfaction in intimacy, etc.

At the dawn of its inception, the state performs a narrow range of tasks, primarily related to the establishment and maintenance of internal and external security. However, as society became more complex, so did the state. Today, it not only protects borders, fights crime, but also regulates the economy, provides social security and assistance to the poor, collects taxes and supports health care, science, schools, etc.

The Church was created for the sake of solving important worldview issues and establishing the highest moral standards. But with

time she also became involved in education, economic activity(monastic economy), the preservation and transfer of knowledge, research work (religious schools, gymnasiums, etc.), guardianship.

If an institution, in addition to benefit, brings harm to society, then such an action is called dysfunction. An institution is said to be dysfunctional when some of the consequences of its activities interfere with the performance of another social activity or another institution. Or, as one of the sociological dictionaries defines dysfunction, it is “any social activity that makes a negative contribution to maintaining efficient operation social system».

For example, economic institutions, as they develop, make more and more demanding requirements for those social functions that the institution of education should perform.

It is the needs of the economy that lead in industrial societies to the development of mass literacy, and then to the need to train an increasing number of qualified specialists. But if the institution of education does not cope with its task, if education is put out of hand very badly, or if it does not train the specialists that the economy requires, then the society will not receive developed individuals or first-class professionals. Schools and universities will release into life routines, dilettantes, semi-knowers, which means that the institutions of the economy will not be able to meet the needs of society.

So functions turn into dysfunctions, plus into minus.

Therefore, the activity of a social institution is considered as a function if it contributes to maintaining the stability and integration of society.

The functions and dysfunctions of social institutions are explicit, if they are distinctly expressed, recognized by all and quite obvious, or latent if they are hidden and remain unconscious for the participants of the social system.

The explicit functions of institutions are both expected and necessary. They are formed and declared in codes and fixed in the system of statuses and roles.

Latent functions are the unintended result of the activities of institutions or persons representing them.

The democratic state that was established in Russia in the early 1990s with the help of new institutions of power - parliament, government and president, it would seem, sought to improve the life of the people, create civilized relations in society and instill respect for the law in citizens. These were the explicit goals and objectives declared in all heard goals. In reality, crime has increased in the country, and the standard of living has fallen. Such were the by-products of the efforts of the institutions of power.

Explicit functions testify to what people wanted to achieve within the framework of this or that institution, while latent functions testify to what came of it.

The explicit functions of the school as an institution of education include

acquisition of literacy and a matriculation certificate, preparation for a university, training in professional roles, assimilation of the basic values ​​of society. But the institution of the school also has hidden functions: acquiring a certain social status that will allow a graduate to climb a step above an illiterate peer, establishing strong school friendships, supporting graduates at the time of their entry into the labor market.

Not to mention a host of latent functions such as shaping classroom interactions, hidden curriculum, and student subcultures.

Explicit, i.e. quite obvious, the functions of the institution of higher education can be considered the preparation of young people for the development of various special roles and the assimilation of the prevailing value standards, morality and ideology in society, and the implicit ones are the consolidation of social inequality between those who have higher education and those who do not have one.

Education as a social institution.

The material and spiritual values ​​and knowledge accumulated by mankind must be passed on to new generations, therefore maintaining the achieved level of development, its improvement is impossible without mastering the cultural heritage. Education is an essential component of the process of socialization of the individual.

In sociology, it is customary to distinguish between formal and non-formal education. The term formal education implies the existence in society of special institutions (schools, universities) that carry out the learning process. The functioning of the formal education system is determined by the prevailing cultural standards in society, political attitudes, which are embodied in the state policy in the field of education.

The term non-formal education refers to the unsystematized training of a person with knowledge and skills that he spontaneously masters in the process of communicating with the surrounding social environment or through individual assimilation of information. For all its importance, non-formal education plays a supporting role in relation to the formal education system.

The most significant features of the modern education system are:

Transforming it into a multi-stage (elementary, secondary and higher education);

Decisive influence on the personality (essentially education is the main factor of its socialization);

Predestination to a large extent of career opportunities, achieving a high social position.

The Institute of Education ensures social stability and integration of society by performing the following functions:

Transmission and dissemination of culture in society (because it is through education that scientific knowledge, achievements of art, moral norms, etc. are transmitted from generation to generation);

Formation of attitudes among young generations, value orientations and ideals that dominate society;

Social selection, or a differentiated approach to students (one of the most important functions of formal education, when the search for talented youth in modern society is elevated to the rank of state policy);

Social and cultural change implemented in the process of scientific research and discovery (modern institutions of formal education, primarily universities, are the main or one of the most important scientific centers in all branches of knowledge).

The model of the social structure of education can be represented as

consisting of three main components:

students;

teachers;

Organizers and leaders of education.

In modern society, education is the most important means of achieving success and a symbol of a person's social position. The expansion of the circle of highly educated people, the improvement of the formal education system have an impact on social mobility in society, make it more open and perfect.

Conclusion.

Social institutions appear in society as large unplanned products social life. How does it happen? People in social groups are trying to realize their needs together and are looking for various ways. In the course of social practice, they find some acceptable patterns, patterns of behavior, which gradually, through repetition and evaluation, turn into standardized customs and habits. After some time, these patterns and patterns of behavior are supported by public opinion, accepted and legitimized. On this basis, a system of sanctions is being developed. Thus, the custom of making a date, being an element of the institution of courtship, developed as a means of choosing a partner. Banks - an element of a business institution - developed as a need for saving, moving, borrowing and saving money, and as a result turned into an independent institution. members from time to time. societies or social groups can collect, systematize and give legal confirmation of these practical skills and patterns, as a result of which institutions change and develop.

Proceeding from this, institutionalization is a process of defining and consolidating social norms, rules, statuses and roles, bringing them into a system that is capable of acting in the direction of satisfying some social need. Institutionalization is the replacement of spontaneous and experimental behavior with predictable behavior that is expected, modeled, regulated. Thus, the pre-institutional phase of the social movement is characterized by spontaneous protests and speeches, disorderly behavior. Appear on short term, and then the leaders of the movement are displaced; their appearance depends mainly on vigorous appeals.

Every day a new adventure is possible, each meeting is characterized by an unpredictable sequence of emotional events in which a person cannot imagine what he will do next.

When institutional moments appear in a social movement, the formation of certain rules and norms of behavior, shared by the majority of its followers, begins. The place of gathering or rally is appointed, a clear time limit for speeches is determined; each participant is given instructions on how to behave in a given situation. These norms and rules are gradually accepted and become self-evident. At the same time, a system of social statuses and roles begins to take shape. There are stable leaders who are formalized according to the accepted procedure (for example, they are chosen or appointed). In addition, each member of the movement has a certain status and performs an appropriate role: he can be a member of an organizational asset, be part of a leader's support group, be an agitator or ideologist, and so on. Excitation is gradually weakened under the influence of certain norms, and the behavior of each participant becomes standardized and predictable. There are preconditions for organized joint actions. As a result, the social movement becomes more or less institutionalized.

So, an institution is a peculiar form of human activity based on a clearly developed ideology, a system of rules and norms, as well as developed social control over their implementation. Institutional activities are carried out by people organized into groups or associations, where the division into statuses and roles is carried out in accordance with the needs of a given social group or society as a whole. Institutions thus maintain social structures and order in society.

Bibliography:

1. Frolov S.S. Sociology. Moscow: Nauka, 1994

2. Guidelines for sociology. SPbGASU, 2002

3. Volkov Yu.G. Sociology. M. 2000

1.Plan……………………………………………………………………………………1

2. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………..2

3. The concept of "Social institution"……………………………………………..3

4. Evolution of social institutions……………………………………………..5

5. Typology of social institutions………………………………………….…...6

6. Functions and dysfunctions of social institutions……………………….……8

7. Education as a social institution……………………………..….…...11

8. Conclusion………………………………………………………………………….13

9. References………………………………………………….……..………15

There are three fundamental institutions of society, and the fourth - spiritual - includes culture, science, religion and education.

The term "institute" (lat. institutum - establishment, device) has many meanings. Over time, it acquired two meanings - a narrow technical one (the name of specialized scientific and educational institutions) and a broad social one (a set of legal norms for a certain range of social relations, for example, the institution of marriage, the institution of inheritance).

The first definition of the concept of "institution of society"

Understanding social institutions as a set of norms and mechanisms that regulate a certain area of ​​social relations (family, production, state, education, religion), they deepened our understanding of them as the pillars on which society rests. Their purpose is to satisfy the most important (fundamental) vital needs of society.

There are only four of them, but exactly four and the main social institutions:

The institution of family and marriage is the need for the reproduction of people,
economic institutions - the need for livelihood,
political institutions - the need for security and social order,
spiritual institutions - the need to solve spiritual problems, the development and transfer of new knowledge, the socialization of the younger generation.

So, the first and most common understanding of a social institution is an adaptive structure of society, created to meet its most important needs and regulated by a set of social norms.

Institutions arose in ancient times. Scientists date production to 2 million years, if we take the first tool created by man as the starting point. Anthropologists assign the second place to the family and believe that the lower limit is at the mark of 500 thousand years. Since then, it has constantly evolved, taking many forms and varieties: polygamy, polyandry, monogamy, cohabitation, nuclear, extended, incomplete, etc. The state is about the same age as education, namely 5-6 thousand years. If with the first everything is clear enough and you can make a mistake by one or two thousand years, then with education the situation is more complicated. V this moment An institution is a collection of people and social organizations. Schools, technical schools, universities, various courses, etc., plus the Ministry of Education and its staff, research institutes, editorial offices of magazines and newspapers, printing houses, and many other things related to pedagogy, constitute the social institution of education.

The second definition of the concept of "institution of society"

Scientists give a second definition of a social institution as a set of social customs, the embodiment of certain habits of behavior, way of thinking and way of life, passed down from generation to generation, changing depending on circumstances and serving as an instrument of adaptation to them. This is how lawyers understand the terms “institution” (establishment, custom, order adopted in society) and “institution” (fixing customs and procedures in the form of a law or institution). Hence the word "institutionalization", denoting the consolidation of a practice or area of ​​social relations in the form of a law or social norm, an accepted order.

Thus, the institutionalization of any science, for example, sociology, involves the publication of state standards and regulations, the creation of research institutes, bureaus, services and laboratories, the opening of corresponding faculties, departments, departments and courses at universities, colleges and schools, training professional specialists, publication of magazines, monographs and textbooks, etc. In essence, institutionalization is an ordered system that can rightfully be considered a social organization.

The social function of the institutions of society

So, the concept of "social institution" is not an abstraction. It denotes a real set of people working in this area, as well as a system of specific laws, management decisions and practical measures. These are quite visible objects - buildings, bridges, factories, personnel, residential apartments, equipment, clearly showing the functioning of this institution. For example, state support for the institution of the family is expressed in cash benefits, the construction of kindergartens, schools, hospitals, etc.

A social institution is also a gigantic social system that encompasses statuses and roles, social norms and sanctions, social organizations (enterprises, universities, firms, agencies, etc.) that have personnel, management apparatus and special procedures or practices. Social institutions are historically established, stable forms of organizing joint activities aimed at meeting the fundamental needs of society.

Basic institutions of society

Social institution - historically established, stable forms of organization of joint activities of people; an organized system of social ties and norms designed to meet the basic needs of society, social groups and individuals.

Conditions for the emergence of a system of social institutions:

A) in society, there must exist and be recognized by the majority of individuals a social need for this institution;
b) society must have necessary funds satisfaction of this need - resources (material, labor, organizational), a system of functions, actions, individual goal-settings, symbols and norms that form the cultural environment on the basis of which a new institution will be formed.

Social institutions - 1) elements of society, representing stable forms of organization and regulation of public life; 2) value-normative complexes (values, rules, norms, attitudes, samples, standards of behavior in certain situations), as well as bodies and organizations that ensure their implementation and approval in the life of society; 3) a certain organization of social activity and social relations, carried out through standards of behavior, the emergence and grouping of which into a system is determined by the content of a specific task being solved by this institution.

The main features (signs) of a social institution:

1. Each institution has its own purpose of activity, mission, ideology.
2. Has an organized system of formal and informal structures.
3. Defines a system of cultural patterns, customs, traditions, values, symbols, rules of people's behavior and a sustainable set of social actions (behavior) in accordance with these norms and patterns.
4. Clearly defines the functions, rights and obligations of the participants in the interaction to achieve the goal.
5. Has certain means (material and human resources) and institutions to achieve the goal. They can be both material and ideal, symbolic.
6. Has a certain system of sanctions that ensure the promotion of the desired and the suppression of deviant behavior.

The structure of a social institution includes: social groups and organizations designed to meet the needs of groups, individuals; a set of norms, social values ​​and patterns of behavior that ensure the satisfaction of needs; a system of symbols that regulate relations in a certain field of activity (trademark, flag, brand, etc.); ideological substantiation of the activities of a social institution; social resources used in the activities of the institute.

The main goal of social institutions is to achieve stability in the course of the development of society.

Types of social institutions are classified:

1. By spheres of society: a) economic (division of labor, property, market, trade, wages, banking system, stock exchange, management, marketing, etc.); b) political (state, army, police, parliamentarism, presidency, monarchy, court, parties, civil society); c) stratification and kinship (class, estate, caste, gender discrimination, racial segregation, nobility, social security, family, marriage, fatherhood, motherhood, adoption, twinning); d) culture (school, higher school, secondary vocational education, theatres, museums, clubs, libraries, church, monasticism, confession).
2. Depending on their field of activity: a) relational institutions (for example, insurance, labor, production) determine the role structure of society based on a certain set of features; b) regulatory institutions define the boundaries of the independence of the individual, his actions to achieve his own goals. This group includes institutions of the state, government, social protection, business, healthcare.
3. By functional qualities.
4. By the time of existence, etc.

Social institutions are distinguished by the diversity and dynamism of their functions.

State Society Institutions

Civil society is most often understood as either simply human society, or those forms of sociality that influence politics, or social groups that are opposed to the state. In any case, the main significance of civil society lies in the fact that it removes the tension between the state, local social groups and individuals, which inevitably arises as the public space expands and social differentiation deepens.

The model in which civil society and the state cooperate with each other is considered the most optimal, but the condition for its effectiveness is the relative homogeneity of the interests and values ​​of individuals and social groups.

In the liberal democratic tradition (J. St. Mill, A. de Tocqueville, I. Berlin), the emphasis is on the freedom and independence of civil society, which forms a number of protective structures between the individual and the state. In this way, freedom from outside interference is ensured, without specifying with what resources and how it can be implemented.

The social democratic tradition is based on the conviction that the democratization of political life must begin with the democratization of civil society. The state, according to this point of view, should participate in ensuring the normal functioning of civil institutions as a guarantor of their democratic management and the cessation of the expansionism of individual institutions (for example, the market may exhibit expansionism in relation to other institutions).

The centrist approach to the analysis of civil society, presented in the work of M. Walser "Spheres of Justice", seems to be the most obvious: the state does not need to try to form the goals that people pursue in various fields life; much more important is its controlling and regulating role in the functioning of civil society institutions.

In Russian literature, the synonymy of the concepts "civil society" and "political democracy" is often noted, although in fact the concept of "political democracy" in more characterizes the political regime, and "civil society" - a sociological description of a special type of society and its relationship with the state.

"Open society" and "civil society" are often considered as subordinate concepts. The first indicates the fact that society, like any open system in nature, has the means of self-organization and self-improvement. As the highest values, an open society recognizes the rule of law, human freedom, existence without violence. This idea was articulated by Karl Popper in The Open Society and Its Enemies.

The concept of "civil society" implies a way of implementing and interconnecting all types of lawful human activity, which is autonomous from power and acts as a source of social development.

Civil society is a society consisting of free citizens, independent of the arbitrariness of the state, capable of defending their rights and interests.

The main features of civil society: - delimitation of the competence of the state and society, the independence of civil society institutions from the state within their competence.

Democracy and pluralism in the political sphere;

Market economy based on non-state enterprises;
- highly developed economy based on industrial and post-industrial technologies;
- the social basis of civil society is the middle class - economically, politically and socially independent citizens from the state, who have the opportunity and ability to provide for themselves;
- in the legal sphere, close interaction has been established with the rule of law, the priority of the rights and freedoms of the individual over the interests of the state;
- ideological and religious pluralism;
- freedom of speech and the media.

The relationship between civil society and the state does not reject any form of state government, provided that the state allows the politically active population to control state power. The most effective in this sense are republics and parliamentary monarchies. The structure of state bodies suggests different options, but it should prevent (for example, through a system of “separation of the branches of power”) the concentration and uncontrolled exercise of state power, and also include an independent judiciary.

Civil society assumes any form of government, any type of local government, but on the condition that this does not deny the freedom of local communities of citizens, and state intervention in local affairs is limited by law. The state structure in the conditions of civil society ensures the territorial dispersion of political power, its demonopolization.

Considering the multidirectional nature of private interests, civil society is not in a position to assume power functions, but it is a set of non-governmental institutions strong enough to be a counterbalance to the state and, without infringing on its role as a guarantor of peace and arbiter of fundamental interests, be able not to allow "the atomization of society and domination over it."

In the political sphere, the task of generating a nation belongs to civil society, while at the same time, the task of stabilizing this process belongs to the state. If the content of the concept of "state" is the sphere of realization of the generally significant interests of social groups, classes, ethnic groups, then the content of the concept of "civil society" is the sphere of realization of the everyday interests of individuals. If the state relies on the constitution, power, coercion, law, then only persuasion, legal and moral norms, traditions, customs, art, and so on can act as means of realizing the goals of civil society.

The basis of the state are political institutions, legislative, executive and judicial authorities, political leaders and the political elite. The basis of civil society is recognized as a free individual with his inalienable rights and non-political organizations through which he implements.

Political forces (parties, movements, pressure groups, etc.) act as a link between the state and civil society.

There are two options for interaction between civil society and the state:

Civil society genetically and functionally precedes the legal one. State power, as an object of action on the part of the politically active public, implements its initiative in the form of laws. This option is ideally appropriate, theoretically possible;
- a more realistic one: the rule of law "does not mature" from the bowels of the civil state, but is proclaimed "existing" and itself initiates the formation of a civil state.

In each case - the organic "maturing" of civil society institutions or their formation "from above" - ​​the active role of the state in the political and legislative support for the reform and functioning of civil society is obvious.

Ensuring human rights, their real nature are determined by two factors: the presence of civil society and the rule of law.

Civil society is a sphere that contributes to the maximum extent to the independent activity of citizens and the free development of the individual, which leads to the priority of the interests of the individual and society as a whole in their relations with the state.

The rule of law, which ensures the rule of law and guarantees the rights and freedoms of man and citizen, is an indispensable condition for the existence of civil society. The latter can only exist in a democratic political system, since it is a mechanism for the implementation of the most important rights and freedoms of man and citizen. The democratic political system is characterized by an extensive internal structure of public organizations, local self-government bodies and administrative state bodies that guarantee the observance of these rights and freedoms.

There are three types of relationship between the citizen and the state:

Paternalistic, statist - identification of society and the state, understanding of a citizen as a "cog" of a complex state mechanism, denial of the rights and freedoms of a citizen, establishment of total state control over the life of a citizen, determination by the state of the status and rights of a citizen. This type of relationship between the citizen and the state dominated the USSR for a long time;
- individualistic, liberal - recognition that a free citizen is the primary source of any state power, the priority of the individual in relation to the state, limiting the independence of a citizen by the scope of his rights and freedoms, limiting the state to civil society, minimizing its functions. Traditionally consisted in Western Europe, the USA and other countries on the basis of the idea of ​​the state as the subject of the assertion of morality (Plato, Aristotle, Hegel), the achievement of general security (Hobbes), the protection of the right to private property (Locke), the achievement of the public good (Grotius), approval universal freedom (Rousseau, Lassalle);
- communitarianism - on the one hand, it opposes liberalism and criticizes its fundamental ideas: an individualistic understanding of the individual, liberal universalism, an atomistic idea of ​​society, and hence the priority of human rights over other values, the procedural nature of liberal democracy, the priority of private life over public life. On the other hand, communitarianism also opposes collectivism, which, from this point of view, means monotony, conformism and a tendency to repress the individual. Thus, communitarianism is based on the ideas of developing individuality, tolerance, and pluralism. (A. McIntyre, M. Walzer, M. Sandel, Ch. Taylor and others).

Civil society is an important subsystem of society as a whole, which coincides with the social sphere of public life.

The concept of "civil society" includes the totality of non-political (non-state) relations in society, that is, economic, moral, cultural, spiritual, religious, national.

Civil society is a sphere of spontaneous manifestation of free individuals, associations and organizations of citizens who have voluntarily formed and are protected by law from direct interference and arbitrary regulation by state authorities.

The economic basis of civil society is property in all its variety of forms, primarily private, cooperative, associative, collective and others.

Civil society institutions are:

Voluntary public organizations and social movements, as well as parties in the early stages of their existence, until they are involved in the mechanisms for exercising power;
- independent mass media;
- public opinion as a social institution;
- Elections and referendums, if they help form and express public opinion and protect group interests;
- elements of the judicial and law enforcement system that depend on citizens (trial by jury, people's police units, etc.).

Civil society is not only a sphere, but also a type of interaction, a certain model of social organization with its inherent qualitative characteristics, namely:

The subjects of interaction in civil society are free and equal individuals who believe in their ability to solve problems;
- collective problems are not alien to them and they are focused on public affairs;
- individualism and competition in their activities are combined with relations of mutual trust and cooperation, the ability to compromise, balance and tolerance.
Civil society is an organization of people who have united around self-selected goals and function on permanent basis.

It is civil society that guarantees each person a free choice of his economic life, affirms the priority of human rights, excludes the monopoly of one ideology, a single worldview, and guarantees freedom of conscience. Civil society must be based on freedom, equal rights, self-organization and self-regulation.

Civil society is a system of self-governing relations between citizens, not mediated by the institutions of state power. In civil society, due to the instrumentalization of man, new forms of social inequality, the material "body" of industrial commodity civilization is built up, but then a field of freedom is born, which provokes initiative energy, unprecedented for traditional society, social dynamics, gives birth to a man of success.

Institutes of social life

The concept of "social institution" was introduced into sociology by Herbert Spencer. One of the first detailed definition of a social institution was given by the American sociologist and economist Thorstein Veblen. His book The Theory of the Leisure Class has not become outdated to this day.

Social institutions:

1) historically established stable forms of organizing joint activities, regulated by norms, traditions, customs, and aimed at meeting the fundamental needs of society (family, production, state, education, religion);
2) a set of social customs, the embodiment of certain habits of behavior, way of thinking and way of life, passed down from generation to generation, changing depending on the circumstances and serving as an instrument of adaptation to them.

Signs of a social institution:

Version #1:

1) the totality of persons engaged in a certain type of activity;
2) a system of legal and moral norms, traditions and customs that regulate the corresponding types of behavior;
3) the presence of institutions equipped with material resources necessary for any type of activity;
4) connection with the socio-political, legal, value structure of society;
5) a clear delineation of the functions of each of the subjects of interaction.

Version #2:

1) a set of social roles;
2) a set of stable generally accepted behavior patterns;
3) a set of norms governing behavior;
4) the basic values ​​underlying these norms;
5) symbols.

Version #3:

1) attitudes and patterns of behavior;
2) cultural symbols;
3) utilitarian cultural traits - material means and conditions;
4) oral and written codes of conduct;
5) ideology (for the family - romantic love, or compatibility, or individualism).

Stages of institutionalization:

1) the emergence of an urgent need, its awareness by society, the formation of common goals;
2) the gradual development of social norms designed to regulate the relevant area;
3) creation of a special system of signs, symbols;
4) the emergence of an appropriate system of statuses and roles;
5) creation of the material base of a social institution;
6) the inclusion of the established institution in the existing social system, the formation of a set of sanctions to ensure the expected behavior.

Main social institutions:

1) institutions of family and marriage;
2) political institutions, especially the state;
3) economic institutions;
4) institutions of education, science and culture;
5) the institution of religion.

Non-core (non-main) institutions, which are included in the main ones, perform private tasks.

Examples:

1) the structure of economic institutions includes the institution of property, designed to regulate the relations of ownership, use, distribution;
2) the institution of the family includes the institution of marriage associated with the position, rights and obligations of the spouses.

Formal and informal institutions.

In formal institutions, interaction between subjects is carried out on the basis of formally agreed rules, laws, regulations, regulations, etc.

Informal institutions (friendship), although they are regulated in social actions, relationships, are not formalized by law, regulations.

Functions of social institutions. Explicit functions and hidden, latent (Robert Merton). The main function of any institution is the satisfaction of a certain need.

Those functions that are openly defined, written down in laws, programs, charters, officially declared, are called explicit.

Since the explicit functions of social institutions are always publicized, they turn out to be more formalized and controlled by society. If an institution fails to fulfill its explicit functions, it is in danger of disorganization and change.

Explicit functions of social institutions:

1) the function of socialization;
2) regulatory;
3) integrative;
4) communicative.

Hidden (latent) functions of social institutions are those functions that are actually carried out.

Latent (lat. latens - hidden) - hidden, outwardly not manifested.

Thorstein Veblen: “... it would be naive to think that people eat black caviar because they want to satisfy their hunger; or they buy a luxurious Cadillac because they want a nice car, obviously these things are not being bought for the sake of acquiring obvious immediate needs. The need to increase one's own prestige is being satisfied here.

The explicit functions of the school include the acquisition of knowledge, preparation for higher education, the assimilation of the basic values ​​of society. Latent functions of the school: the emergence of strong friendships, the acquisition of a certain social status.

Sometimes the latent functions are quite identical to the declared ones, but usually there is a small or very deep lag (divergence, difference) between real and formal activity. For example, quite often a phenomenon that is incomprehensible at first glance arises: an institution continues to exist and even function successfully in a situation where it not only does not fulfill its functions, but also prevents their implementation. Obviously, such an institution has hidden functions, i.e. it satisfies the needs of certain social groups (this is often observed among political institutions, in which latent functions are developed to the greatest extent).

The discrepancy between the formal and real activities of institutions is a kind of indicator of the instability of society.

Dysfunctions of a social institution - a violation of the normal interaction of a social institution with the social environment (society).

What are the dysfunctions of a social institution:

1) ambiguity of goals;
2) uncertainty of functions;
3) falling social prestige;
4) submission to the interests of individuals (personalization).

Total institutions - institutions that cover the full daily cycle of their wards (army, penitentiary system).

Penitentiary (Middle Latin poenitentiarius - repentant, correctional) - in a number of countries - a prison, a correctional institution.

There is no strict correspondence between the spheres of public life and social institutions. To perform the functions of each of the spheres of public life, it is necessary to combine the efforts of several major institutions.

If we combine such institutions as education (culture and science) and religion into one, then between the spheres of public life and the main social institutions, it will be possible to establish a one-to-one correspondence:

1) economic sphere - production;
2) social sphere - family and marriage;
3) the political sphere - the state;
4) spiritual sphere - education and religion.

The role of the institutions of society

The main role that institutions play in society is to reduce uncertainty by establishing a stable (though not necessarily efficient) structure of interaction between people. But the stability of institutions is in no way contradicted by the fact that they undergo changes over time.

All institutions evolve, from traditional conventions, codes and norms of behavior to written law, customary law and contracts between individuals. (Thus, the set of choices at our disposal is constantly changing.) Changes at the periphery of the institutional system can be so slow and gradual that only historians can see them, although in modern world the speed of institutional change is obvious.

A social institution is a relatively stable complex (system) of norms, rules, customs, traditions, principles, statuses and roles that regulate relations in various spheres of society. These are historically established stable forms of organization of joint activities and relations of people in a certain area of ​​life. For example, political institutions regulate relations in the political sphere, economic ones in the economic sphere, etc.

However, it must be borne in mind that a social institution is a multifunctional system. Therefore, one institution may participate in the performance of several functions in different spheres of society, and, conversely, several institutions may participate in the performance of one function. For example, the institution of marriage regulates marital relations, participates in the regulation of family relations and at the same time can contribute to the regulation of property relations, inheritance, etc.

Social institutions are formed and created to meet the most important individual and social needs and interests. They are the main regulatory mechanisms in all major areas of human life. Institutions provide stability and predictability of relations and behavior of people, protect the rights and freedoms of citizens, protect society from disorganization, form a social (institutional) system. The process of ordering, standardization and formalization of relations is called institutionalization.

The institutionalization of relations in a certain sphere of life suggests that the majority of members of society recognize the legitimacy (legitimacy) of this social institution. In addition, institutionalization involves the organizational (legal) design of a social institution.

A social institution should be distinguished from specific organizations, social groups and individuals. The ways of interaction and behavior prescribed by institutions are impersonal. Social institutions (social systems) do not consist of specific people, people participate in them, occupying certain positions, acquiring appropriate social statuses and performing roles determined by the status. For example, the institution of the family is not specific parents, children, and other family members. This is a certain system of formal and informal norms and rules, social statuses and roles, on the basis of which family relations are built.

Any person involved in the activities of this or that institution is obliged to comply with the relevant requirements. If a person does not properly perform the social functions and roles prescribed by the institution, then he can be deprived of his social status. For example, a parent can be deprived of his parental rights, an official - of his position, etc.

To perform its functions, a social institution forms (creates) the necessary institutions within which its activities are organized. In addition, each institution must have the necessary facilities and resources. So, for the functioning of the institution of education, such institutions as schools, colleges, universities are created, the necessary buildings and structures are being built; stand out cash and other resources.

All human life is organized, directed, supported and controlled by social institutions. For example, a child, as a rule, is born in one of the institutions of the Institute of Health - a maternity hospital; primary socialization takes place in the institution of the family; receives education and profession in various institutions of institutions of general and vocational education; the security of the individual is provided by such institutions as the state, government, courts, police, etc.; the institutions of public health and social protection support health. At the same time, each institution in its field performs the functions of social control and forces people to obey accepted norms.

Family and marriage - the need for the reproduction of the human race and primary socialization;
- political (state, parties, etc.) - the need for security, order and management;
- economic (production, property, etc.) - the need to obtain means of subsistence;
- education - the need for the socialization of the younger generations, the transfer of knowledge, the training of personnel;
- culture - the need for the reproduction of the socio-cultural environment, for the transfer of cultural norms and values ​​to the younger generations;
- religions - the need to solve spiritual problems. The institutional system of society does not remain unchanged.

As society develops, new social needs arise and new institutions are formed to meet them. At the same time, the “old” institutions are either reformed (adapted to new conditions) or disappear altogether. For example, such social institutions as the institution of slavery, serfdom, monarchy were eliminated in many countries. They were replaced by the institution of presidency, parliamentarism, and civil society. And such institutions as the institutions of family and marriage, religions have been significantly transformed.

Institutes of the spheres of society

Society is a part of the material world freed from nature, but closely connected with it, which includes the ways of interaction between people and the forms of their unification. At the center of social development is a person with consciousness and will. Therefore, society is an artificial nature built on top of natural nature as a result of the joint activity of individuals. Society is a system of joint activities of people.

The subsystems include areas of public life:

1. Economic - associated with the production and distribution of material goods to ensure the life of society;
2. Social - includes the relationship between people in the field of providing disabled members of society, health care, education;
3. Political - includes state, public and legal institutions for regulating society, managing it;
4. Spiritual - includes the means of development and satisfaction of non-material needs, as well as the mechanisms of formation and formation of social consciousness (religious, ideological, etc.).

Society is a concept that directly characterizes the organization of people's lives in a country. Society is a collection of people (individuals) united by historically established forms of economic and social activity in the course of providing for the material and spiritual needs of people. In a narrower sense, society can be called a group of people united by the similarity of their origin and place in the system of social division of labor. Society is also called the association of people to achieve some goals.

The elements of society are social groups (estates, classes) and social institutions (state, church, family). The degree of difficulty in moving from one group to another, as well as the inequality of groups in the system of public institutions, is an indicator of the level of closed society. All the diversity of societies - united on various basis of large groups of people that exist now and have already disappeared - is divided into certain types.

There are many ways to classify societies. If religious is chosen as the main feature, then societies can be divided into Islamic, Confucian, Christian, etc. If the language is French-speaking, English-speaking, Russian-speaking, and many others. If writing - unwritten (pre-written) and written. Based on the classification of means of obtaining a livelihood, four main types of society are obtained: societies that live by hunting and gathering; horticultural societies; agricultural societies; industrial (industrial) societies. In Marxist theory, the type of society is determined by the mode of production, that is, how economic resources are used and controlled. Primitive communal, slave-owning, feudal and capitalist societies were distinguished, a transition to a communist one was assumed. The division into pre-industrial (traditional), industrial and post-industrial society was derived from the Marxist one, the transition of modern developed countries to which, as is commonly believed, gradually occurs after the Second World War.

There was no consensus on the ways of further development of human society. It either develops progressively (progresses) (according to the theory of K. Marx), or moves towards its decline (regresses) (according to O. Spengler). According to modern evolutionary theory, society as a whole is progressively progressing. Within the framework of the cyclic theory, there is an opinion that the system of development of society looks like a spiral.

The main spheres of society's life are: economic, social, political, spiritual. Each of them is respectively studied by such sciences as economics (general and social), sociology, political science, philosophical disciplines. We will try to briefly review the main content of these areas.

Development of civil society institutions

The formation of a civil democratic society is impossible without the development of the public sector - an extensive network of non-governmental, non-profit associations of various kinds: veterans and youth, economic and creative, trade unions and interest clubs. Only a self-organized society can resist violence from narrowly mercenary economic, political and even criminal groups. Today Russia is at a crossroads. We have to make a choice - which way should we go further: along the corporate-authoritarian or civil-law? How to resist those who are satisfied with the first path? The answer is unambiguous - to create institutions of self-organization of citizens representing the interests of the most diverse groups of the population. Expand local self-government and the rights of public organizations.

In Russia, there have always been excessive demands on the authorities, from which it followed that the authorities in Russia are the source of all troubles. Among the majority of our fellow citizens at all times there was an opinion that it was useless to influence the authorities. "Nothing depends on me, and I don't want to participate in anything, because anyway "they" will be deceived." Hence - indifference, apathy, cynicism. And on the other hand, the conviction that the government is obliged to do something for me. Hence the longing for the "iron hand", for the person who will come and arrange everything. Today we need a completely different ideology of relations between the state and citizens. Citizens need to be helped to realize that no one will do anything for them, without their participation. They can only be deceived. It is necessary to cultivate a civic spirit so that people have a sense of respect for themselves, for their country, for their past and future, and finally for their children.

According to the constitution Russian Federation citizens have the right to association on a non-commercial basis, in order to receive social services, develop self-organization of social systems. Modern Russian legislation defines non-profit organizations as the main form of exercising the right of citizens to associate, which can be created in the form of public, charitable organizations, non-profit partnerships, autonomous organizations and institutions. The activities of public and charitable organizations are regulated by their own federal laws. Religious associations have a special status among public associations, political parties, trade unions, youth and children's organizations.

The process of formation of public associations in Russia, which today have become an integral part of political and public life, allows us to speak of the emergence of the foundations of civil society in the country. Government authorities and the public recognize the possibility of promising cooperation in terms of attracting public organizations representing socially significant projects and programs in solving the problems facing the region. The scale of these tasks requires the creation of such interaction mechanisms that will allow non-profit organizations and authorities to establish mutually beneficial and equal partnerships.

Thus, non-governmental non-profit organizations, which form the so-called Third Sector, will play an increasingly significant role in solving the key tasks of forming a civil society and the most important social problems. In the following, in order to avoid terminological confusion, we will use the term independent non-profit organizations to refer to organizations that make up the Third Sector.

Why Third Sector? The thing is that in countries where private property is recognized and a market economy exists or is being formed, it is customary to divide the entire set of legal entities into three sectors.

The first sector unites the state and municipal organizations, that is, organizations whose property is in state or municipal ownership.

The second sector is private commercial organizations, that is, organizations that pursue profit as the main goal of their activities, and their property is not in state or municipal ownership.

The third sector is private non-profit organizations. The first distinguishing feature of these organizations is that they do not have profit as the main goal of their activities and do not distribute the profits among their participants. The second distinguishing feature is that the property of these organizations is not in state or municipal ownership.

It is not uncommon to refer to these three sectors as government, commercial, and non-commercial, respectively. The use of these names, of course, is quite acceptable, but they are more conditional. It should be borne in mind that Russian legislation divides the entire set of legal entities into two large classes: commercial and non-commercial organizations. Among those and others can be state, municipal and private. That is, many commercial organizations wider than the Second Sector, and many non-profit organizations are correspondingly wider than the Third Sector.

Non-profit organizations can exist in different organizational and legal forms. This may be a consumer cooperative, a public or religious organization (association), a foundation, an institution, an autonomous non-profit organization, and others. In turn, institutions can be state, municipal and private. State and municipal institutions belong to the first of the above sectors. But private institutions, that is, institutions whose property is not in state or municipal ownership, but belongs to citizens or legal entities, and other forms of non-profit organizations make up the Third Sector.

The reasons hindering the development of the "third sector" include the following:

imperfection regulatory framework regulating the interaction of state authorities and public associations;
- lack of a mechanism for cooperation between the three sectors of society, a system for organizing financial assistance, preferential taxation. Charitable traditions are underdeveloped, the absence of the middle class as a financial base for the activities of independent non-profit organizations;
- insufficient awareness of development programs, the mechanism of their formation, the place of public associations in their implementation;
poor awareness of the population about the activities of public organizations;
- insufficient professionalism in the activities of public associations;
- Insufficiency of the necessary organizational and methodological assistance from the authorities.

The federal law "On non-profit organizations" provides for the possibility of supporting independent non-profit organizations by state authorities and local governments. Such support and cooperation are in the fundamental interests of both sides.

For what reasons are the state and local governments interested in interacting with the third sector?

Firstly, most state non-profit organizations are created to solve the same problems that state and municipal bodies deal with on a daily basis. This is caring for low-income, sick, socially disadvantaged citizens, promoting the upbringing and education of children and adolescents, the preservation and development of culture, the real protection of the rights and freedoms guaranteed by the Constitution of the Russian Federation, and much more that cannot be provided on a purely commercial basis, market basis. The existence of the third sector is primarily due to the fact that the most active members of society strive to contribute to the solution of the problems facing it, not only by fulfilling the direct duties imposed by the state on all citizens, but also by doing something "beyond duties", voluntarily. In this regard, the need for unification and coordination of efforts is obvious.

Secondly, in some cases the third sector operates more successfully and more economically than state institutions. This is convincingly shown by studies conducted in many countries. As a result, it often turns out to be more profitable for the state to transfer funds to independent non-profit organizations, of course, in exchange for clear, specific and controlled obligations on their part, than to create additional organizations on their own.

Thus, in the United States in the 1980s, more than a third of all spending on social and cultural needs was directed to the third sector, including more than half of all federal spending on social assistance, culture, science, and humanitarian purposes. Specific Analysis shows that the benefits budget financing independent non-profit organizations are especially large when at least one of the following two conditions is present: there is an opportunity to involve volunteers in the work and the task being solved is not quite standard, an unconventional approach to a specific category of service recipients is required, deep individualization of activities.

So, the cooperation of the state and local governments with organizations of the third sector can serve as an important factor in increasing the efficiency of the use of funds, especially those allocated for social needs.

Thirdly, the strengthening of a democratic state and the development of local self-government in itself depend decisively on the formation of a modern civil society. It's about about various forms of civilized interaction of citizens, their voluntary participation in public affairs. It is organizations of the third sector that act as the "supporting structures" of civil society. The closer and more fruitful the contacts of the state with this sector, the better the mutual understanding of the authorities and society, and the less likely their mutual alienation.

It is natural that in the "Program of Social Reforms in the Russian Federation" among the priority measures was "determining the procedure for interaction in the field of social policy between authorities, public and commercial organizations."

At the same time, the third sector needs moral and material support from the state and local governments. A fairly typical example: volunteers are ready to join efforts and funds to help any category of those in need, but it is difficult for them to pay the rent for the premises necessary for work at the rates set for commercial organizations and pay taxes. Providing them with benefits can ensure the achievement of the goal, which otherwise would have to spend more money from the regional or city budget.

No less important is the interest of third sector organizations in effective control by state and municipal authorities. Such control ensures that there are no abuses that interfere with the performance of the functions assumed by non-profit organizations and reduce their prestige.

The activities of most non-profit, including public and charitable, organizations are aimed at solving the pressing problems of a particular locality or region as a whole. A significant contribution to the solution of these problems is also made by regional and local branches of public organizations operating on a scale of the entire Russian Federation. Experience shows that the third sector develops more successfully where the representative and executive bodies of the subjects of the Federation, local governments guide and stimulate non-profit organizations, while preventing unjustified interference in their activities.

In the current conditions, there is an objective need to improve the system of relations "regional authorities - the public sector - the commercial sector", the formation of new approaches to cooperation between the public and state sectors, and the development of mechanisms for such cooperation.

We believe that the time has come for us to think together on the development of a concept for a social development program that would include:

Determination of the conceptual foundations, principles, policies of the executive authorities on which interaction with public associations is built;
- improvement of existing and development of new forms of social partnership, mutual cooperation between authorities and non-state associations of citizens;
- development of effective mechanisms for support by the authorities of the activities of public associations in the implementation of socially significant programs by them;
- creation of institutions of interaction (infrastructure) of authorities and public associations.

The implementation of such a program could contribute to the democratization of power, the formation and strengthening of civil society institutions, the expansion of their participation in governance, the development of the consciousness and self-awareness of citizens, and the increase in their civic activity and responsibility for solving socio-economic problems.

However, civil society organizations still have a lot to learn in this regard. One must be able to recognize pressing social needs, be able to propose real projects to solve these problems, arrange them into a good business plan, and so on. That is, you need to learn.

Historian Ivan Ilyin once said: “Russia is not human dust and not chaos. First of all, it is a great nation that has not squandered its strength and has not despaired of its calling. This people is hungry for free order and peaceful labor, for property and for national culture. Don't bury him prematurely!" Yes, it will be difficult for us. And only by joining forces, we will be able to prove to the whole world what the Russian spirit and strength means. I am convinced that the 21st century belongs to Russia. But it will not be revolutions and uprisings that will shake the planet, but our achievements.”

The structure of the institutions of society

A social institution is a relatively stable complex (system) of norms, rules, customs, traditions, principles, statuses and roles that regulate relations in various spheres of society. For example, political institutions regulate relations in the political sphere, economic - in economic sphere etc.

However, it must be borne in mind that a social institution is a multifunctional system. Therefore, one institution may be involved in the performance of several functions in different areas of society, and vice versa, several institutions may be involved in the performance of one function. For example, the institution of marriage regulates marital relations, participates in the regulation of family relations and at the same time can contribute to the regulation of property relations, inheritance, etc.

Social institutions are formed and created to meet the most important individual and social needs and interests. They are the main regulatory mechanisms in all major areas of human life. Institutions ensure the stability and predictability of people's relations and behavior, protect the rights and freedoms of citizens, protect society from disorganization, and form a social system.

A social institution should be distinguished from specific organizations, social groups and individuals. The ways of interaction and behavior prescribed by institutions are impersonal. For example, the institution of the family is not specific parents, children and other family members, but a certain system of formal and informal norms and rules, social statuses and roles, on the basis of which family relations are built. Therefore, any person involved in the activities of an institution must comply with the relevant requirements. If a person does not properly fulfill the social role prescribed by the institution, then he can be deprived of his status (a parent can be deprived of his parental rights, an official - of his position, etc.).

To perform its functions, a social institution forms (creates) the necessary institutions within which its activities are organized. In addition, each institution must have the necessary facilities and resources.

For example, for the functioning of the institution of education, institutions such as schools, colleges, universities are created, the necessary buildings and structures are built, funds and other resources are allocated.

All human life is organized, directed, supported and controlled by social institutions. So, a child, as a rule, is born in one of the institutions of the institute of health - a maternity hospital, primary socialization takes place at the institute of the family, receives education and a profession in various institutions of institutions of general and vocational education; the security of the individual is provided by such institutions as the state, government, courts, police, etc.; the institutions of public health and social protection support health. At the same time, each institution in its field performs the functions of social control and forces people to obey accepted norms.

The main social institutions in society are:

Institutions of family and marriage - the need for the reproduction of the human race and primary socialization;
political institutions (state, parties, etc.) - the need for security, order and management;
economic institutions (production, property, etc.) - the need to obtain means of subsistence;
institutions of education - the need for the socialization of the younger generations, the transfer of knowledge, and the training of personnel;
institutions of culture - the need for the reproduction of the socio-cultural environment, for the transfer of cultural norms and values ​​to the younger generations;
institutions of religion - the need for solving spiritual problems.

The institutional system of society does not remain unchanged. As society develops, new social needs arise and new institutions are formed to meet them. At the same time, the “old” institutions are either reformed (adapted to new conditions) or disappear. For example, such social institutions as the institution of slavery, the institution of serfdom, the institution of the monarchy were eliminated in many countries. They were replaced by the institution of the presidency, the institution of parliamentarism, the institutions of civil society, and such institutions as the institutions of family and marriage, the institutions of religion have been significantly transformed.

Society and institutions of law

Society is a combination of individuals and social groups and classes and the relationships that develop between them. Social groups are such a set of individuals that have their own interests and their activities influence the behavior of other people. Social groups should not include associations of persons identified by sex, age, eye color, etc.

Social groups can be large or small, temporary or permanent, formal or informal. Informal groups are characterized by personal, informal ties (family, tourist group, group of neighbors, etc.). Formal groups are based not on personal, but on formal ties. Their members may not even know each other (parties, joint-stock companies, etc.).

There are various relations between individuals, groups and classes. The leading place in these relations belongs to production, economic relations (relationships of property, distribution of material wealth, relations arising from the social division of labor), which form the basis of all other social relations: political, moral, etc. Each society is associated with a certain the territory in which it lives and functions.

In order to streamline relations in society, manage public affairs, processes, resolve various kinds of conflicts, maintain order, achieve certain goals of society or individual social groups in society, various kinds of social institutions are spontaneously formed or deliberately created. An institute is a kind of formation (institution, organization, etc.) created to carry out certain tasks. This is a very broad concept. Social institutions are the state and law in general, morality and customs as social regulators, political parties, public associations, the church, the family, etc. At the same time, individual state bodies or components of law are also called institutions, for example of the constitutional court, the institution of necessary defense in criminal law, the institution of guilty liability in civil law etc.

Along with the concept of society in science there is the concept of civil society. Civil society as a phenomenon is considered in comparison with the state. Schematically, somewhat simplistically, civil society can be viewed as a sphere outside the state itself. Civil society is a system of subjects and relations, to a certain extent independent of the state, a sphere dominated by private interest, private property, economically independent, free, legally equal subjects. Civil society is the "kingdom of economic relations" (K. Marx). These relations form the backbone, the basis of civil society, and civil society is the socio-economic basis of the state.

Civil society is made up of such institutions as the family, the church, mass media independent of the state, business structures, political parties, trade unions and other public associations, etc.

Society Management Institute

Each institution performs its own characteristic social function. The totality of these social functions is formed into the general social functions of social institutions as certain types of social system. These features are very versatile.

Sociologists of different trends tried to somehow classify them, to present them in the form of a certain ordered system. The most complete and interesting classification was presented by the so-called "institutional school".

Representatives of the institutional school in sociology (S. Lipset, D. Landberg and others) identified four main functions of social institutions:

1) Reproduction of members of society. The main institution that performs this function is the family, but other social institutions, such as the state, are also involved in it.
2) Socialization - the transfer by individuals of patterns of behavior and methods of activity established in a given society - the institutions of the family, education, religion, etc.
3) Production and distribution. Provided by the economic and social institutions of management and control - the authorities. Management and control functions are carried out through a system of social norms and regulations that implement the appropriate types of behavior: moral and legal norms, customs, administrative decisions, etc. Social institutions control the individual's behavior through a system of rewards and sanctions.

Conditions for their existence and problems of development of civil society institutions. If the main element of civil society is the individual, then its supporting structures are all those social institutions, organizations and groups that are designed to promote the comprehensive realization of the individual, his interests, goals, aspirations. The ideas of individual freedom and private property underlie the concept of civil society.

A significant place in civil society is occupied by interest groups, which are various organizations or associations of workers, farmers, entrepreneurs, representatives of various professions (doctors, lawyers, engineers, teachers, teachers, scientists), church, women's, youth and other public organizations, united community of interests.

Interested groups and organizations provide an opportunity for the individual to realize his abilities. They reflect the diversity of economic, ethnic, religious, regional, demographic, professional and other interests of people.

Some non-state associations, organizations have realized the problem of building a civil society and the need to solve it, ahead of the state (authority). Political programs, slogans, scientific and journalistic works on the problems of civil society began to appear. Nevertheless, a huge number of existing public groups are not ready today to take the position of self-organization and self-government. In order for different communities to try to take such a position, special work should be carried out with them.

Interaction with civil society institutions

In order for civil society to form and effectively defend its interests, it is necessary to create favorable conditions for the activities of non-profit organizations.

Lately Special attention is given to the interaction of authorities with various institutions of civil society, public organizations or, as they are commonly called the "third sector", including interaction at the federal, regional and municipal levels.

An example of active joint work of authorities and civil society institutions at the federal level is the creation of the Public Chamber of the Russian Federation, the All-Russian Popular Front, Public Councils under the Head of State, through which close interaction with the public is carried out.

One of the forms of government openness for interaction with civil society institutions is the Decree of the President of the Russian Federation on the formation of a working group to prepare proposals for the formation of an “open government” system in the Russian Federation, one of the goals of which is to analyze the effectiveness of interaction between bodies executive power with public movements and associations, preparation of proposals for the creation of a modern system of interaction between authorities and public movements at the stages of decision-making.

Civil society operates most effectively at the regional level. It is at the regional level that citizens solve the urgent tasks of organizing their living space. Here relations between regional and municipal authorities and citizens are developed.

The current state of the third sector has a number of features:

Has a weak administrative and legal resource, which affects the decision-making process;
- has the support of citizens, but does not have human resources;
- great heterogeneity of political institutions, which have serious differences in social orientation, economic development, interaction with stakeholders, which makes it difficult to develop a certain position, and, accordingly, make decisions.

There was a formalization of relations both at the federal and regional levels. The following facts may be an example of this.

During these years, federal laws and programs were adopted that support the development of non-profit organizations, support for socially oriented NGOs.

Mechanisms for taking into account the opinion of citizens at the regional levels were created:

Public Chambers of the subjects of the Russian Federation, municipalities;
- Public advisory councils under Ministries and departments;
- Trustees, expert councils and numerous working groups.

There is an organization of citizens at the place of residence, there is a practice of organizing territorial public self-governments(TOS) and homeowners associations.

Local authorities are the link that ensures the implementation of any strategy of the federal and regional authorities, bringing it to the people.

Municipal leaders, who are well aware of the characteristics and problems of the territory inhabiting it, are able to offer the most effective tactics for implementing strategies and projects developed at the federal level. Local self-government bodies can provide continuous and reliable feedback for state leaders, providing information on the progress of the implementation of the most important social tasks on the ground, on the attitude of citizens to various initiatives of the authorities, and, if necessary, proposals for correcting the decisions taken.

Local government resources are currently underused. Efficient work local authorities are hampered by a number of factors, the most important of which is the weak resource base of local governments, and, above all, the low level of own revenues of local budgets.

No less acute is the problem of the low social activity of citizens who avoid participation in resolving issues of local importance. One of the reasons is the formed socio-psychological attitudes of citizens, which consist in total dependence on the authorities, inability and unwillingness to take responsibility for solving the problems of their home, street, settlement, as well as low legal culture and lack of awareness. Most of the population is poorly aware of the powers and responsibilities of local authorities, their own rights and opportunities to influence the situation on a particular issue. Activity in the participation of issues of local importance is determined by the level of education, legal literacy, the desire to take part in solving the identified issues.

As a result of the interaction of authorities and representatives of the public on the part of citizens, the following factors take place:

Solving individual problems;
- disbelief and lack of understanding of how to influence decision-making;
- weak legal literacy, low level of awareness in solving local issues.

From public associations:

Instability of funding sources;
- little experience in defending their own interests;
- insufficient professionalism, as well as the level of expert assessment in the organization itself.

For civil society, the problems of self-organization, development of public control, building a dialogue and interaction with authorities are topical.

Only through the joint efforts of federal, regional, local authorities and civil society institutions is it possible to effectively organize work on the interaction of authorities and public institutions to solve problems in terms of improving the quality of life of the population.

Local civil society institutions

According to the Constitution of the Russian Federation, local self-government bodies are not included in the system of state authorities (Article 12). Local self-government in the Russian Federation provides for the independent solution by the population of issues of local importance, possession, use and disposal of municipal property. Local self-government is carried out by citizens through a referendum, elections, other forms of direct expression of will, through elected and other local self-government bodies (Article 130). The structure of local self-government bodies is determined by the population independently (Article 131). These provisions, taking into account the practice of implementing constitutional norms on local self-government, are reflected in Federal Law No. 131-F3 "On general principles organization of local self-government in the Russian Federation", which specifies a number of positions on the organization of the activities of local self-government bodies and the population itself in the system of organizational units determined by the settlement principle.

This made it possible to bring the system of local self-government bodies closer to the population and expand the forms of its independent and responsible solution of a number of problems that are currently assigned to this level of management, carried out "independently and under one's own responsibility." Without considering the whole range of issues of the formation of local self-government on the principles provided for by the Constitution of the Russian Federation and the updated law on local self-government, we will dwell on only one thesis we propose. This is the problem of considering the system of local self-government as an institution of civil society and its role in information processes.

Local self-government bodies are not included in the system of state authorities, but are a very influential institution of public authority, working in close contact and interaction with state bodies, therefore there is every reason to consider local self-government as a system of representation and realization of the interests of the population, as an essential component of national interests, interests of civil society.

The process of establishing a system of local self-government on new principles, when the number of local self-government bodies has increased several times, and the citizens themselves must get used to the new conditions for the manifestation of their independence and responsibility within the limits that are currently available to their own decision, is still far from complete. It is all the more important to look at this system of organizing the population as an institution of civil society. We can say that this is a specific feature of the Russian process of development of civil society.

It is a very difficult task to reveal the positions, methods and forms of manifestation of the initiative of the citizens themselves, who must overcome the psychological barrier - to impose and expect everything from the state administration apparatus - a very difficult task. In this regard, outdated ideas about what is due, possible and obligatory, both among officials of state bodies at the federal and regional levels, and in the apparatus of local governments, as well as among citizens, should be broken. The study of this process requires special organizational and financial support, the restructuring of the work of the media, the entire front information work.

But already now it should be noted that the beginnings of a completely new concept of "doping" are growing in society. In addition to attracting financial resources from different business recipients, sprouts of another crop appear. People themselves begin to look for worthy persons who can not only represent their interests, but also organize them for good deeds. The election of the head of the municipality of the village in the Stavropol Territory of the priest of the local church, which he restored together with the population, is still an odious fact, but a significant one. "Turn the village into a temple" is the motto of the voters. Recently there has been a noticeable turn of television and radio towards the coverage of positive phenomena in society, support for good undertakings.

Let us turn to the analysis of the content of the special issue of the Izvestiya supplement. The reason for such attention to the topic of local self-government was the adoption by the Moscow City Duma of a law expanding the rights of local self-government in this subject of the Russian Federation. According to the Law of the city of Moscow No. 50 "On the procedure for vesting local authorities of intra-city municipalities in the city of Moscow with certain powers of the city of Moscow (state powers)", district municipal assemblies elected by Muscovites got a chance to prove to their voters that they, i.e. voters already have such a mechanism of conversation and interaction with representatives of public authorities, which at the very primary level makes it possible to hear them and respond to their needs. An Izvestia correspondent in a conversation with N. Kosareva, head of the Institute of Urban Economics, fixes the following position: "The right to local self-government is as important as the right to freedom of speech." It is also said that "we still do not know how to use all this very well. This is an institution "for growth". It gives much more than society is now able to extract from it." Professor of Moscow architectural institute, member of the Public Chamber of the Russian Federation V. Glazychev, as if supporting this idea, states: "People must believe that they can control "their" territory."

Gradually, in addition to the problems of guardianship and guardianship, the area of ​​local self-government includes such issues as: organization of sports and cultural work (circles, sections, various leisure institutions); activities of commissions on juvenile affairs; organization of communities created on the basis of a house or microdistrict. At first glance, this is not much, but all these are channels of information interaction. It is difficult to overcome the conviction that the public cannot independently solve problems important for the territory, control the observance of the legality of the activities of state bodies and structures of large and even medium-sized businesses. These sentiments are seriously overcome by the fact that the Moscow Government is increasingly appealing to public opinion and attracting local government structures to solve the problems of the city and its individual territories.

Two factors began to strongly influence the civil and legal status of local self-government in the Russian Federation. This is the renewal of the structures and methods of the system of state and local government, which implies state policy in the near future, and the decision of the fate of the local press and local media.

The press also touches on such a side of the problems of civil society as the interaction of the population and municipalities with business - small and medium-sized businesses. Using the materials of the all-Russian public organization small and medium business "OPORA Russia" and the materials of the All-Russian Public Opinion Research Center (VTsIOM), the newspaper states that the problems of small business have not decreased, and administrative barriers remain the main obstacle to its development.

It should be noted that in general the problem legal regulation information interaction with citizens and various structures of civil society leaves much to be desired. And this is an argument to disagree with the forecasts regarding the fate of local public media. In bills to amend the media law, arguments were loudly voiced to cut media outlets associated with local governments, mayors' and governors' offices. Accordingly, it is precisely these ties that can be effectively implemented without the intervention of an invincible bureaucracy, based on the elements of " e-government", subject to citizens mastering information literacy. Note that the intentions to create a public television channel, in contrast to state channels, have not yet been successful due to the lack of interest of private organizations in its financing and content.

A breakthrough in information support for the interaction of local and regional government with the population is provided by the large-scale connection of information monitoring systems for the course of election campaigns and the transfer of these communication and information systems to service territorial problems of government and civil structures throughout the Russian Federation.

It is possible and necessary to study the practice of interaction between the processes of formation of the information and civil society, to analyze it for each institution and structure of civil society. A lot of work is being done in this direction. However, this side of the issue attracts the legislator very little. In most normative acts, including laws, no attention is paid to the issue of information communication with civil society institutions. An exception is the appeal to the topic of media accreditation, the organization of sites, portals, and this is already a good sign of strengthening communication with the population and its public associations.

It is important to organize constant monitoring, trace and analyze how the characteristics of society interact in the following parameters: democratic, social, legal, informational, civil - in information sphere. Support deserves the work of the magazine "Information Resources of Russia", which purposefully covers the issues of communication between civil society and information. Among other things, the following questions were clarified: how are civil society and the rule of law connected? can a civil society be created in the absence of the rule of law? What institutions of civil society are already visible? Which parties, associations, associations or foundations determine the state of civil society? what is the role of human rights organizations? Is the opinion about the imitation of democratic forms in the sphere of the judiciary fair? What are the priorities for building a civil society? Does the media justify its purpose? How can you evaluate the performance of the executive branch? what other sources of information are important for the development of civil society? These issues are also paid attention to by such major publications as Expert, Vlast, Itogi, etc.

The range of questions and variety of responses allows us to summarize that local government structures are both essential element civil society are of great importance in the development of the information society. It is both the source of requests for ICT information structures and the user of the entire information environment from print, television, telephony to the Internet.

Economic institutions of society

An economic institution is a historically established mechanism that regulates the activities of people (by distributing and assigning certain socially useful roles to them: a consumer, a broker, an entrepreneur, etc.), controlling their compliance with certain norms, traditions, rules and laws, and, finally, to meet the maximum needs with the minimum use of scarce resources.

Money is one of the most important economic institutions of society. This is a historically established spontaneous mechanism for regulating the relationship of people. When they are not there, the relationship has to be sorted out by force, pressure, authority, order, and other similar forceful methods. But when they are, then everything turns out sedately and nobly: I hand over linen to the laundry and pay money for the services, for which I used to “work hard” at the enterprise.

It is unlikely that anyone will doubt that the long history of money is associated with traditions, customs, norms and other social paraphernalia attributed to a social institution. And about how skillfully and wisely they control our actions (especially when they are not enough for everything), or that only they are able to satisfy the maximum of needs at the minimum cost of their production, and there is no need to speak. What is the cost of making paper or metal money? How many times do they turn around, bringing countless benefits to the state? How many people are made happy or unhappy?

Thus, money is a social institution that increases wealth by lowering the cost of exchange and promoting greater specialization in line with people's comparative advantage.

Banks are another economic institution of society that operates in the field of exchange. The main function of banks is to ensure the safety of deposits, funds and be a source of loans.

Banks, as financial intermediaries, transfer money from the depositor to the borrower, i.e. from those who want to leave money for the future, to those who want to use it in the present. People put their savings in the bank, because they know that this money will be returned at their first request, since banks ensure the physical safety of money from fire and robbery, provide insurance on deposits.

The activity of banks is vital for the normal functioning of the economy. Commercial loans allow firms to pay current bills and finance expenses. Loans to the population allow citizens to purchase goods now, paying for them from future earnings.

Banks concentrate a significant part of the free capital available in the country (passive operations) and transfer it into the hands of entrepreneurs who need to expand their turnover (active operations).

Banks are in the business of buying and selling shares. They undertake the placement of shares in newly emerging industrial enterprises, as well as the purchase of shares for those entrepreneurs who would like to become their owners.

The stock market game for falling and raising for banks is a way to concentrate securities and shares. Banks are not limited to mediation, but they themselves own industrial enterprises or take part in one way or another. Thus, before the revolution of 1917, the overwhelming majority of votes at the general meetings of Russian metallurgical plants belonged to several commercial banks; in their portfolio were shares of dozens of industrial enterprises, which in this way became the property of banks. The capital invested by banks in the shares of industrial enterprises is called financial capital. It puts industry under the complete control of the banks.

Banks live a busy and hectic life: they merge and enlarge, go bankrupt and take over, expand (create branches), enter the international arena, their accounts can be arrested, the state can appoint an interim administration that takes all the leadership. Of all the behaviors, banks prefer mergers. They compete less with each other than firms and enterprises. Penetrating into production, banks are interested in ensuring that there is no competition between homogeneous industrial enterprises that they own. They strive to merge homogeneous enterprises, previously owned by different owners, into an economic whole. In this way, banks support the desire of industry to organize syndicates and trusts.

A commercial institution is any institution where goods are bought and sold. This is a store, a wholesale market, an exchange, a purchasing base, etc. They operate in the field of economic exchange.

Most of the goods are exchanged through direct contacts between the seller and the buyer, and some of them - only indirectly - through special institutions, which are called exchange institutions. Their role in society is enormous. They stabilize prices and regulate the flow of merchandise, avoiding chaos and confusion. Labor, land, and even air can be commodities. In short, everything that is sold and bought. A commodity, not money, satisfies human needs for food, housing, health, and so on. Money is just an intermediary, a means that facilitates the movement of goods around the world.

We need to distinguish between goods and services. Commodities are things that are produced: food, clothing, houses, cars, and so on. Commodities can also be called products or commodities.

Services are not products, although many items are used in their provision, say, a brush, a vacuum cleaner, washing powder. Showing a film is a service to the public. And making a film is making a product. Moviegoers, going home, do not take anything material with them, although they have a lot of emotional impressions.

Hope to distinguish between two close concepts - the buyer and the consumer. They buy goods and consume both goods and services. But services are not bought. Therefore, the concept of "consumer" is somewhat broader than the concept of the buyer. Although the difference between them is so erased that they are used as synonyms.

There is another difference between services and goods. Products and commodities together constitute the welfare of society, or national wealth. But the totality of services cannot be called welfare or wealth. They perform a different function - they create the comfort of the environment. Shine shoes, wash clothes, bring mail, etc. - this is something without which it is impossible to imagine civilization and a civilized society. In a primitive society, the list of services is very limited. Nomads, they say, do not wash for weeks, if not months, and the modern city dweller sometimes does this twice a day.

Wealth is the result of the cumulative activity of the population. It must be understood as a set of goods and the amount of money expressing them, which may be administered by an individual family or an entire state.

Wealth belongs to the realm of accumulation. The main economic institutions in the sphere of accumulation are commercial and state banks, but they cannot be attributed only to this sphere; they act as institutions of both accumulation and exchange at the same time.

Goods, money and services express the degree of development of society, its prosperity. Modern powers - developed capitalist countries such as the United States, Germany or Japan - have proportionally developed areas of goods and services. They can still be ranked among the richest societies. In poor countries (Bangladesh, Mauritania, Ethiopia) the service sector is very narrow. People here barely meet their basic needs and cannot even dream of expensive medical care.

Societies that have accumulated great wealth develop faster than those that have not been able to do so. It follows that, as technological progress progresses, rich countries become richer, and poor countries become poorer relative to them. In other words, the gap between poor countries and rich ones is widening.

A society that gives its citizens the maximum freedom of economic enterprise will, as a rule, end up with the maximum number of rich or prosperous people. Such is the United States. A society that restricts economic freedom gets the fewest rich people. Such are the ancient Eastern empires. The Soviet Union occupied an intermediate position on this scale.

There is no such society in which all ways of enrichment would be exhausted. There are always new opportunities. Often enriched there and those who first came up with an original way of enrichment. A vivid example is the story of one American who became a millionaire literally on the scum. He was the first to guess that the city dump could bring huge profits if used properly. Having taken a loan of several hundred thousand dollars from the city bank on the advice of the mayor's office, which became interested in the original project for the destruction of stinking garbage dumps around the city, the enterprising American sanitized and then asphalted one of them. On the resulting territory, he built a supermarket, where, unlike cramped city shops, one could drive up by car. The Americans liked the idea. Soon the entrepreneur created a wide network of supermarkets throughout the country.

The market is one of the most important economic institutions of society, and not only the market for goods and services, but also for the labor force. According to Professor D. Card of Princeton University, workers consider the labor market to be both a social institution and an economic one. When higher wages are offered, people look for work; having received it, they think more about the fair nature of remuneration, which affects its effectiveness.

Markets specialize in what they sell depending on what the sellers offer. For example, a place where the poorest segments of the population sell second-hand things - old watches, used clothes, all kinds of nails, nuts, locks, etc., is called a flea market, and also a bazaar. Places where sellers, usually reputable firms, exhibit newly appeared product samples and, advertising them, urge potential buyers to conclude deals with them for large quantities of goods, are called fairs and sales exhibitions. A place where citizens can purchase small quantities of essential goods - cereals, butter, vegetables, meat and fish products, at prices lower than in stores, is called wholesale markets.

The stock exchange is one of the most important economic institutions that satisfies the fundamental need for profit and gambling to increase and decrease. This is usually a spacious and state-of-the-art facility where all day long, in a strange language for the uninitiated, interspersed with slang and gestures, there is a trade companies, consignments, currencies, minerals, stocks, and even labor force.

An exchange is a form of a regularly operating wholesale market. Depending on the subject of the transaction, there are:

Commodity exchange, where goods are sold according to standards and samples;
- stock exchange, where they buy and sell securities of their own and foreign companies;
- currency exchange, designed to daily determine the value of the domestic currency in relation to foreign, for example, to determine the exchange rate of the ruble against the dollar;
- the labor exchange, which is trying to find a possible place of work for the unemployed, i.e. employ them.

The Commodity Exchange concentrates wholesale turnover on mass, mainly raw materials and foodstuffs (non-ferrous metals, grain, cotton, sugar, etc.). Among them, universal and specialized (for individual goods or their groups) commodity exchanges are distinguished.

Among the economic institutions of society are also industrial production, goods market, labor market, labor market, exchange and trade, property, etc.

Political institutions of civil society

In modern public life, various forms of associations of citizens are of great importance - their conscious purposeful institutionalization, that is, their transformation into some kind of organizational formations.

Social science has identified two main social public non-profit phenomena that are in constant interaction, interpenetration, and sometimes confrontation. It is about the coexistence of the state and civil society.

We will consider the concept of the state in more detail in one of the following sections. As for civil society, there are many definitions of this phenomenon. For example, civil society is a section of public life, which is determined by the activities and relations of people as sovereign, enterprising and self-organized citizens (this is the sphere of independent socially significant actions of citizens).

There are also other definitions, for example, civil society is a category that both describes and anticipates a complex and dynamic ensemble of legally protected non-governmental institutions that tend to be non-violent, self-organizing and self-reflexive and which are in constant friction with each other and with institutions of state power. ; the latter “shape”, limit and make their activity possible.

Thus, under civil society can be considered a set of individuals and their interaction, as well as their socially significant activities, including through various organizational forms.

Civil society has a number of characteristics, among them:

The dismemberment of the social whole into parts, relationships, activities that have a logic independent of the whole;
- an individual striving to become a personality, as a special unit of society and one of its subjects; a sovereign individual in the role of the primary or basic cell of society as a whole and its various formations;
- the conditions created in society for the manifestation, formation and institutionalization of the initiative of the individual - civil initiative.

This initiative of citizens is formalized through the creation of various institutions of civil society.

The institutions of civil society are the areas of activity of citizens implemented through various organizational forms (organizations) aimed at solving socially significant problems.

The following institutions are considered to be elements of civil society:

1. Individual citizens and their informal groups;
2. Bodies of local self-government;
3. Different types of non-profit organizations:
- public and other non-governmental organizations,
- mass media,
- schools,
- church,
- trade unions and associations,
- various institutions of social cooperation,
- business associations,
- charity organisations,
- political organizations
- cultural organizations, including national-cultural autonomies.

Thus, it is possible to form three main groups of civil society institutions.

The role of certain groups of citizens in social activities is certainly high, but this topic is not the key one in this work. The organizational aspects of the formation and activities of local governments are of interest to us on the pages of this book only as carriers of public authority at the local (municipal) level.

As for the various types of non-profit organizations, they are widely represented in modern public life in Russia in a wide variety of industries and areas of activity of citizens. The content and classification of non-profit organizations will be discussed below.

From the essence and manifestations of civil society, its main public functions, which are:

Creation of an environment where the public initiative of citizens is formed;
- integration of society on the basis of convergence of interests and activation of activities;
- creation and consolidation of norms and values ​​in society;
- reduction of social and other conflicts to a civilized dialogue;
- impact on state institutions of power and forms of interaction with them;
- participation in the organization and conduct of public examinations;
- control over the activities of the executive branch and elected bodies of government;
- development of culture;
- creation of new knowledge;
- protection of the rights and interests of citizens;
- integration into the international humanitarian space;
- educational, educational and consolidating role, etc.

The totality of civil society institutions, primarily implemented through non-profit organizations, was called the "third sector", that is, the institutionalized part of social activity, which is different from business and the public sector.

The “third sector” of public activity is the associations of citizens (civil society institutions) formed as a result of their initiative to achieve socially significant non-profit goals, that is, the entire set of non-governmental and non-profit organizations.

With the development of democracy and the establishment of traditions of free expression of will and civil initiative in Russia, the “third sector” has become a real factor in the development of modern society and an equal partner of the state and other institutions in the process of realizing the interests of citizens.

We can no longer imagine modern existence without a large number of both public and private media, without consumer protection societies, without professional associations and charitable societies.

Thus, we can say with confidence that the institutions of civil society and the "third sector" are the most important realities of today, without which the further development of Russia is unthinkable.

Russian society institutions

Family as a social institution

A. G. Kharchev defines the family as an association of people based on marriage and consanguinity, bound by common life and mutual responsibility. Marriage is the foundation of family relationships. Marriage is a historically changing social form relations between a woman and a man, through which society regulates and sanctions their sexual life and establishes their marital and family rights and obligations. But the family, as a rule, is a more complex system of relations than marriage, since it can unite not only spouses, but also their children, as well as other relatives. Therefore, the family should be considered not just as a marriage group, but as a social institution, that is, a system of connections, interactions and relationships of individuals that perform the functions of reproduction of the human race and regulate all connections, interactions and relationships on the basis of certain values ​​and norms, subject to extensive social control through system of positive and negative sanctions.

The family as a social institution goes through a series of stages, the sequence of which develops into a family cycle or life cycle families.

Researchers identify a different number of phases of this cycle, but the main among them are the following:

1) entering into a first marriage - the formation of a family;
2) the beginning of childbearing - the birth of the first child;
3) the end of childbearing - the birth of the last child;
4) "empty nest" - marriage and separation of the last child from the family;
5) termination of the existence of the family - the death of one of the spouses.

The main, first function of the family, as follows from the definition of A.G. Kharchev, is reproductive, that is, the biological reproduction of the population in social terms and the satisfaction of the need for children - in personal terms.

Along with this main function, the family performs a number of other important social functions:

A) Educational - socialization of the younger generation, maintaining the cultural reproduction of society;
b) Household - maintaining the physical health of members of society, caring for children and elderly family members;
c) Economic - obtaining material resources of some family members for others, economic support minors and disabled members of society;
d) The sphere of primary social control is the moral regulation of the behavior of family members in various spheres of life, as well as the regulation of responsibility and obligations in relations between spouses, parents and children, representatives of the older and middle generations;
e) Spiritual communication - personal development of family members, spiritual mutual enrichment;
f) Social status - granting a certain social status to family members, reproduction of the social structure;
g) Leisure - organization of rational leisure, mutual enrichment of interests;
h) emotional - obtaining psychological protection, emotional support, emotional stabilization of individuals and their psychological therapy.

To understand the family as a social institution, the analysis of role relations in the family is of great importance. The family role is one of the types of social roles of a person in society. Family roles are determined by the place and functions of the individual in the family group and are divided into: marital, parental, child, intergenerational and intragenerational, etc.

Currently, there is a process of weakening the family as a social institution, a change in its social family functions. The family is losing its leading position in the socialization of individuals, in the organization of leisure and other important functions. The traditional roles in which a woman ran the household, gave birth and raised children, and the husband was the owner, often the sole owner of property, and ensured the economic independence of the family, were replaced by role roles, in which the vast majority of women began to participate in industrial, political activities, and economic support for the family. and take an equal and sometimes leading role in family decision-making. This significantly changed the nature of the functioning of the family and entailed a number of positive and negative consequences for society. On the one hand, it contributed to the growth of women's self-awareness, equality in marital relations, on the other hand, it aggravated the conflict situation, influenced demographic behavior, leading to a decrease in the birth rate and an increase in the death rate.

Institutes of Education and Science

Learning is a fundamental process in the life of modern society. It allows the individual to adapt to the surrounding reality, using the experience of previous generations. Sociologists understand learning as a relatively permanent change in human behavior or abilities that results from experience. A society can take on the task of transmitting certain attitudes, knowledge, and skills to its members through formal learning—what sociologists call education.

Education is one of the aspects of the multilateral process of socialization, through which the individual acquires the behaviors necessary for him to participate effectively in society. It is a process in which some individuals have the status of a teacher, while others have the status of a student, performing the roles corresponding to these statuses.

Schools are of essential functional importance for the survival and preservation of modern society. The socialization of young people is carried out in them in a "natural" way.

All societies give certain statuses to individuals, regardless of their qualities and capabilities. Other statuses are achieved through choice and competition. Modern societies must select young people for positions and professions that require special talents. The institution of education, as a rule, performs this function, acting as an intermediary in the selection of individuals for certain types. professional activity. By issuing diplomas, certificates and certificates, he determines which of the young people will gain access to power, prestigious position and status.

But if once a university diploma gave a person an elite professional status with a remuneration corresponding to this status, today it gives the status of the middle class with a corresponding salary. Despite the fact that the population is becoming more educated, the relative position various groups in the system of stratification practically does not change.

Science is a sphere of human activity, the main function of which is the development and systematization of generally valid knowledge about reality.

At present, there is practically no sphere of human activity in which one could do without the use of scientific knowledge. The life of modern society largely depends on the success of science.

The subject of the sociology of science is the study of a complex set of relationships that develop both within the framework of scientific activity itself and between science and other areas of public life.

Though modern science is impossible without centralization, excessive centralization gives rise to the danger of its bureaucratization. The process of integration of sciences leads to the fact that even now the solution of most major problems depends on the participation in the work of specialists of various profiles, which involves the search for new organizational forms. Science as a social institution is becoming the most important factor in the socio-economic development of any of our societies, it requires growing costs, due to which science policy is becoming one of the leading areas of social management.

According to the American sociologist R. Merton, scientific knowledge can be defined as empirically confirmed and logically consistent statements that express the existence of certain regularities (and, as a result, are predictions). The institutional goal of science is to expand reliable knowledge. The whole structure of the technical and moral norms of science is derived from this goal and these methods and is aimed at its realization.

Science in Russia has always been dependent on the state. Historically, a contradictory and largely disastrous situation has developed for its development. On the one hand, following its own interests, the state financed and supported scientific institutions and scientists. On the other hand, state structures made significant efforts to prevent the autonomy of science and its right to independently determine the standards and norms, directions and problems of its activities.

Science in Russia is a field of activity that is most endangered in the process of social breakdown.

This is due to such factors:

1) almost complete state institutionalization of science and scientific education, which makes this area dependent on state policy;
2) the dependence of modern scientific research and personnel training on the socio-economic order, which, in the face of dramatic social changes, requires a quick reorientation both in the forms and content of scientific work and in the education system. However, due to the natural inertia of these areas and the traditionally meager funding, such changes are difficult;
3) a significant impact on the course of processes in science and the formation of a general cultural atmosphere in society.

A reasonable state policy in relation to science and education requires a careful attitude to the results already achieved, concern for maintaining the staff, a kind of state protectionism in relations with the scientific sphere in the new conditions of its existence.

Institute of Religion

Religion can be characterized as a complex multi-level social formation, the meaning of the existence of which is determined by the society's need for the sacred.

Since the sacred is perceived with reverence and awe, it can only be approached through ritual - a social act prescribed by the rules of conduct in the presence of the sacred. In their religious behavior, people form a social world of meanings and rules that guide their thoughts, feelings, and actions in the same way as in other areas of life.

Religion as a social institution performs the following functions in society:

worldview function. Religion provides answers to questions about the meaning of existence, the cause of human suffering and the essence of death.
- Compensatory function. The answers that religion gives to questions about the meaning of existence give believers consolation, convincing them that their suffering on earth is not in vain.
- The function of social self-identification. Religious teachings and practices unite believers into a community of people who share the same values ​​and pursue the same goals.
- Socio-regulatory function. Religious teachings are applicable to people's daily lives.
- The function of social control. Religion controls the behavior of people. Most of the rules of a religious group apply only to its members, but some rules set limits for other citizens who do not belong to a religious community.
- Adaptive function. Religion can help people adapt to a new environment.
- Protective function. Most religions support the government and resist any change in the social situation. The Church protects and supports the existing government, and the government, in turn, provides support to the denominations that protect it.
- Socio-critical function. Although religion is often so closely tied to the prevailing social order that it resists change, there are times when it comes out as a critique of the current situation in society.

Dysfunctions of religion are aspects of religion that are destructive to society. These include religious intolerance and fanaticism, leading to wars and mass persecution of non-believers and atheists, as well as savage forms of worship associated with human sacrifice and self-torture.

Modern Russian society is at a complex and controversial stage of development. There is a transformation not only of the political, administrative and economic structure, but also of the spiritual foundations of society. This process is currently far from its completion, which can be understood as the formation of more or less stable spiritual guidelines shared by members of society.

Social science. Full course of preparation for the Unified State Examination Shemakhanova Irina Albertovna

1.9. Basic institutions of society

social institution - historically established, stable forms of organization of joint activities of people; an organized system of social ties and norms designed to meet the basic needs of society, social groups and individuals.

Conditions for the emergence of a system of social institutions:

a) in society there must exist and be recognized by the majority of individuals a social need for this institution;

b) society must have the necessary means to satisfy this need - resources (material, labor, organizational), a system of functions, actions, individual goal-settings, symbols and norms that form the cultural environment on the basis of which a new institution will be formed.

Social institutions- 1) elements of society, representing stable forms of organization and regulation of public life; 2) value-normative complexes (values, rules, norms, attitudes, models, standards of behavior in certain situations), as well as bodies and organizations that ensure their implementation and approval in the life of society; 3) a certain organization of social activity and social relations, carried out through standards of behavior, the emergence and grouping of which into a system is determined by the content of a specific task being solved by this institution.

The main features (signs) of a social institution:

1. Each institution has its own purpose of activity, mission, ideology.

2. Has an organized system of formal and informal structures.

3. Defines a system of cultural patterns, customs, traditions, values, symbols, rules of people's behavior and a sustainable set of social actions (behavior) in accordance with these norms and patterns.

4. Clearly defines the functions, rights and obligations of the participants in the interaction to achieve the goal.

5. Has certain means (material and human resources) and institutions to achieve the goal. They can be both material and ideal, symbolic.

6. Has a certain system of sanctions that ensure the promotion of the desired and the suppression of deviant behavior.

The structure of a social institution includes: social groups and organizations designed to meet the needs of groups, individuals; a set of norms, social values ​​and patterns of behavior that ensure the satisfaction of needs; a system of symbols that regulate relations in a certain field of activity (trademark, flag, brand, etc.); ideological substantiation of the activities of a social institution; social resources used in the activities of the institute.

the main goal social institutions - the achievement of stability in the course of the development of society.

Types of social institutions are classified:

1. By spheres of society: a) economic(division of labor, property, market, trade, wages, banking system, exchange, management, marketing, etc.); b) political(state, army, police, parliamentarism, presidency, monarchy, court, parties, civil society); v) stratification and kinship(class, estate, caste, gender discrimination, racial segregation, nobility, social security, family, marriage, fatherhood, motherhood, adoption, twinning); G) culture(school, higher school, secondary vocational education, theatres, museums, clubs, libraries, church, monasticism, confession).

2. Depending on their field of activity: a) relational institutions(for example, insurance, labor, production) determine the role structure of society based on a certain set of features; b) regulatory institutions determine the boundaries of the independence of the individual, her actions to achieve her own goals. This group includes institutions of the state, government, social protection, business, health care.

3. By functional qualities.

4. By the time of existence, etc.

Social institutions are distinguished by the diversity and dynamism of their functions.

Types of functions of social institutions

A) General Functions: 1. The function of fixing and reproducing social relations is a system of rules and norms of behavior that fixes and standardizes the behavior of each member of the institution and makes this behavior predictable; 2. Regulatory function - a pattern of behavior, norms and control developed by a social institution that regulates the relationship between members of society (i.e., a social institution as an element of social control); 3. Integrative function - the processes of cohesion, interdependence and mutual responsibility of members of social groups; 4. Translating function - the transfer of social experience, allowing individuals to socialize to its values, norms and roles; 5. Communicative function - the dissemination of information both within the institution for the purpose of managing and monitoring compliance with the norms, and its transfer when interacting with other institutions.

B) Individual functions:

- the social institution of marriage and the family implements the function of reproducing members of society together with the relevant departments of the state and private enterprises (antenatal clinics, maternity hospitals, a network of children's medical institutions, family support and strengthening agencies, etc.);

- the social institution of health is responsible for maintaining the health of the population (polyclinics, hospitals and other medical institutions, as well as state bodies organizing the process of maintaining and strengthening health);

- the social institution of the production of means of subsistence performs a creative function;

- the social institution of law performs the function of developing legal documents and is in charge of the observance of laws and regulations, etc.

V) R. Merton proposed to distinguish between "explicit" and "hidden (latent)" functions. Explicit - officially accepted, recognized and controlled by society; hidden - performed covertly or unintentionally. With the divergence of these functions, a double standard of social relations arises, which threatens the stability of society, since along with official institutions, “shadow” institutions are formed that take on the function of regulating the most important social relations (for example, criminal structures).

Since society is a dynamic system, some institutions may disappear (the institution of slavery) while others may appear (the institution of advertising or the institution of civil society). The formation of a social institution is called a process institutionalization(the process of streamlining social relations, the formation of stable patterns of social interaction based on clear rules, laws, patterns and rituals).

Basic social institutions

1. Family as a social institution, it is characterized by a set of social norms, sanctions and patterns of behavior that regulate the relationship between spouses, parents and their children and other relatives. The family institution includes many more private institutions, such as the institution of marriage, the institution of kinship, the institution of motherhood and fatherhood, the institution of social protection of childhood, etc. Functions: economic, reproductive, educational, etc.

2. Social institutions of politics: exercise political power. Internal functions: economic, stabilization, coordination, ensuring the protection of the population, etc.; external functions: defense, international cooperation, etc.

3. Economic institutions: the institution of property, the system of trade and distribution, financial system, the insurance system and other types of systematized economic activity. The economy as a social institution provides people with the material conditions of existence, is a systematizing component of society, a decisive sphere of its life, determining the course of all processes taking place in society. Main function: production and distribution of goods and services.

4. Education- a social institution of culture that ensures the reproduction and development of society through the organized transfer of social experience in the form of knowledge, skills and abilities. Education contributes to the socialization of the individual and the development of personality, promotes its self-realization. Functions: adaptive, professional, civil, general cultural, humanistic, etc.

5. Right- a social institution, a system of generally binding norms and relations protected by the state. The main functions of law are: regulatory (regulates social relations) and protective (protects those relations that are useful for society as a whole).

6. Religion– how a social institution can be defined as a system of socially recognized beliefs and related practices. Functions: ideological, compensatory, integrating, general cultural, etc.

The institutions are numerous and varied in their forms and manifestations. Large institutions may include institutions of a lower level (for example, the court - the institutions of the bar, prosecutor's office, judging). Each institution can satisfy several needs (the church is able to satisfy religious, moral, cultural needs), and the same need can be satisfied by different institutions (spiritual needs can be satisfied by art, science, religion, etc.).

The activity of a social institution is determined by: a set of specific norms and regulations governing the corresponding types of behavior; integration of a social institution into the socio-political, ideological and value structures of society; the availability of material resources and conditions that ensure the successful implementation of regulatory requirements and the exercise of social control.

Social institutions contribute to the consolidation and reproduction of certain social relations that are especially important for society, as well as the stability of the system in all the main areas of its life. Any social transformations are carried out through changes in social institutions.

Society is a complex social formation, and the forces operating within it are so interconnected that it is impossible to foresee the consequences of each individual action. In this regard, institutions have overt functions that are easily recognized as part of the recognized purposes of the institution, and latent functions that are carried out inadvertently and may not be recognized or, if recognized, are considered a by-product.

People with significant and high institutional roles often do not realize enough latent effects that can affect their activities and the activities of people associated with them. As a positive example of the use of latent functions in American textbooks, the activities of Henry Ford, the founder of the campaign that bears his name, are most often cited. He sincerely hated labor unions, big cities, large loans and installment purchases, but as he advanced in society, he stimulated their development more than anyone else, realizing that the latent, hidden, side functions of these institutions work for him, for him. business. However, the latent functions of institutions can either support recognized goals or make them irrelevant. They can even lead to significant damage to the norms of the institution.

How does a social institution function? What is its role in the processes taking place in society? Let's consider these questions.

Explicit functions of social institutions. If we consider in the most general form the activity of any social institution, then we can assume that its main function is to satisfy social needs, for which it was created and exists. However, in order to perform this function, each institution performs functions in relation to its participants that ensure the joint activities of people striving to meet needs. These are primarily the following functions.
1. The function of consolidation and reproduction of social relations. Each institution has a system of rules and norms of behavior that fixes, standardizes the behavior of its members and makes this behavior predictable. Appropriate social control provides the order and framework in which the activities of each member of the institution must proceed. Thus, the institution ensures the stability of the social structure of society. Indeed, the code of the institution of the family, for example, implies that members of society should be divided into sufficiently stable small groups - families. With the help of social control, the institution of the family seeks to ensure the stability of each individual family, and limits the possibility of its disintegration. The destruction of the family institution is, first of all, the appearance of chaos and uncertainty, the collapse of many groups, the violation of traditions, the impossibility of ensuring a normal sexual life and high-quality education of the younger generation.
2. Regulatory function is that the functioning of social institutions ensures the regulation of relationships between members of society by developing patterns of behavior. The whole cultural life of a person proceeds with his participation in various institutions. Whatever type of activity an individual engages in, he always encounters an institution that regulates his behavior in this area. Even if some kind of activity is not ordered and regulated, people immediately begin to institutionalize it. Thus, with the help of institutions, a person exhibits predictable and standardized behavior in social life. He fulfills the role requirements-expectations and knows what to expect from the people around him. Such regulation is necessary for joint activities.
3. Integrative function. This function includes the processes of cohesion, interdependence and mutual responsibility of members of social groups, occurring under the influence of institutional norms, rules, sanctions and systems of roles. The integration of people in the institute is accompanied by the streamlining of the system of interactions, an increase in the volume and frequency of contacts. All this leads to an increase in the stability and integrity of the elements of the social structure, especially social organizations.
Any integration in an institution consists of three main elements or necessary requirements: 1) consolidation or combination of efforts; 2) mobilization, when each member of the group invests its resources in achieving goals; 3) the conformity of the personal goals of individuals with the goals of others or the goals of the group. Integrative processes carried out with the help of institutions are necessary for the coordinated activities of people, the exercise of power, and the creation of complex organizations. Integration is one of the conditions for the survival of organizations, as well as one of the ways to correlate the goals of its participants.
4. Broadcasting function. Society could not develop if it were not possible to transfer social experience. Each institution for its normal functioning needs the arrival of new people. This can happen both by expanding the social boundaries of the institution and by changing generations. In this regard, each institution provides a mechanism that allows individuals to socialize to its values, norms and roles. For example, a family, raising a child, seeks to orient him to those values family life held by his parents. Government agencies seek to influence citizens in order to instill in them the norms of obedience and loyalty, and the church tries to accustom as many members of society to the faith as possible.
5. Communicative function. Information produced in an institution should be disseminated both within the institution for the purpose of managing and monitoring compliance with regulations, and in interactions between institutions. Moreover, the nature of the institute's communicative links has its own specifics - these are formal links carried out in a system of institutionalized roles. As the researchers note, the communicative capabilities of institutions are not the same: some are specifically designed to transmit information (mass media), others have very limited opportunities for this; some actively perceive information (scientific institutions), others passively (publishing houses).

The explicit functions of institutions are both expected and necessary. They are formed and declared in codes and fixed in the system of statuses and roles. When an institution fails to fulfill its explicit functions, it is bound to face disorganization and change: these explicit, necessary functions can be appropriated by other institutions.

latent functions. Along with the direct results of the actions of social institutions, there are other results that are outside the immediate goals of a person, not planned in advance. These results can be of great importance to society. Thus, the church seeks to consolidate its influence to the greatest extent through ideology, the introduction of faith, and often achieves success in this. However, regardless of the goals of the church, there are people who leave production activities for the sake of religion. Fanatics begin to persecute non-believers, and there may be the possibility of major social conflicts on religious grounds. The family strives to socialize the child to the accepted norms of family life, but it often happens that family education leads to conflict between the individual and the cultural group and serves to protect the interests of certain social strata.

The existence of the latent functions of institutions is most prominently shown by T. Veblen, who wrote that it would be naive to say that people eat black caviar because they want to satisfy their hunger and buy a luxurious Cadillac because they want to buy a good car. Obviously, these things are not acquired for the sake of satisfying obvious urgent needs. T. Veblen concludes from this that the production of consumer goods performs a hidden, latent function - it satisfies the needs of people to increase their own prestige. Such an understanding of the actions of the institute for the production of consumer goods radically changes the opinion about its activities, tasks and conditions of functioning.

Thus, it is obvious that only by studying the latent functions of institutions can we determine the true picture of social life. For example, very often sociologists are faced with a phenomenon that is incomprehensible at first glance, when an institution continues to successfully exist, even if it not only does not fulfill its functions, but also prevents their implementation. Such an institution obviously has hidden functions by which it satisfies the needs of certain social groups. A similar phenomenon can be observed especially often among political institutions, in which latent functions are developed to the greatest extent.

Latent functions, therefore, are the subject that should primarily interest the student of social structures. The difficulty in recognizing them is compensated by the creation of a reliable picture of social connections and features of social objects, as well as the ability to control their development and control the social processes that take place in them.

Relationships between institutions. There is no social institution that would operate in a vacuum, in isolation from other social institutions. The action of any social institution cannot be understood until all of its interrelations and relationships are explained from the standpoint of the general culture and subcultures of groups. Religion, government, education, production and consumption, trade, family - all these institutions are in multiple interaction. Thus, the conditions of production must take into account the formation of new families in order to meet their needs for new apartments, household items, childcare facilities, etc. At the same time, the education system largely depends on the activities of government institutions that maintain the prestige and possible prospects for the development of educational institutions. Religion can also affect the development of education or government agencies. The teacher, the father of the family, the priest or the functionary of a voluntary organization are all affected by the government, since the actions of the latter (for example, issuing regulations) can lead to both success and failure in achieving vital goals.

An analysis of the numerous interconnections of institutions can explain why institutions are rarely able to fully control the behavior of their members, to combine their actions and attitudes with institutional ideas and norms. For example, schools may apply standard curricula to all students, but student response to them depends on many factors beyond the teacher's control. Children whose families encourage and carry out interesting conversations and who join the reading of books that develop them acquire intellectual interests more easily and to a greater extent than those children whose families prefer watching TV and reading entertainment literature. Churches preach high ethical ideals, but parishioners often feel the need to neglect them under the influence of business ideas, political allegiances, or the desire to leave the family. Patriotism glorifies self-sacrifice for the good of the state, but it is often inconsistent with the many individual desires of those raised in families, business institutions, or some political institutions.

The need to harmonize the system of roles assigned to individuals can often be satisfied by agreement between individual institutions. Industry and commerce in any civilized country depend on the support of the government, which regulates taxes and arranges exchange between the individual institutions of industry and commerce. In turn, the government depends on industry and trade, which economically support regulations and other government actions.

In addition, given the importance of some social institutions in public life, other institutions are trying to seize control over their activities. Since, for example, education plays a very significant role in society, attempts to fight for influence on the institution of education are observed among political organizations, industrial organizations, churches, etc. Politicians, for example, contribute to the development of the school, confident that by doing so they support attitudes towards patriotism and national identity. Church institutions are trying, with the help of the education system, to instill in students loyalty to church doctrines and a deep faith in God. Industrial organizations are trying to orient students from childhood to the development of industrial professions, and the military - to raise people who can successfully serve in the army.

The same can be said about the influence of other institutions on the institution of the family. The state is trying to regulate the number of marriages and divorces, as well as the birth rate. In addition, it establishes minimum standards for the care of children. Schools are looking for cooperation with the family by creating teachers' councils with the participation of parents and parents' committees. Churches create ideals for family life and try to hold family ceremonies within a religious framework.

Many institutional roles begin to conflict because the person who performs them belongs to several institutions. An example is the well-known conflict between career and family orientations. In this case, we are dealing with clashes of norms and rules of several institutions. Sociological research shows that each institution seeks to the greatest extent possible to “disconnect” the individuals included in it from playing roles in other institutions. Enterprises try to include the activities of the wives of their employees in their sphere of influence (a system of benefits, orders, family vacations, etc.). Army institutional rules can also be bad for family life. And here they find ways to include wives in army life, so that the husband and wife are related to uniform institutional norms. The problem of fulfillment by the individual of the exclusively role of this institution is most definitely solved in some institutions of the Christian church, where the clergy are released from family responsibilities by taking a vow of celibacy.

The appearance of institutions is constantly adapting to changes in society. Changes in one institution tend to lead to changes in others. After changing family customs, traditions and rules of conduct, a new system social security of such changes involving many institutions. When peasants come from the countryside to the city and create their own subculture there, the actions of political institutions must change, legal organizations etc. We are accustomed to the fact that any change in the political organization affects all aspects of our daily lives. There are no institutions that would be transformed without change into other institutions or would exist separately from them.

institutional autonomy. The fact that institutions are interdependent in their activities does not mean that they are ready to give up internal ideological and structural control. One of their main goals is to exclude the influence of the leaders of other institutions and to keep their institutional norms, rules, codes and ideologies intact. All major institutions develop patterns of behavior that help maintain a certain degree of independence and resist the dominance of people grouped in other institutions. Enterprises and businesses strive for independence from the state; educational institutions also try to achieve the greatest independence and prevent the penetration of the norms and rules of foreign institutions. Even the institution of courtship achieves independence in relation to the institution of the family, which leads to some mystery and secrecy in its rituals. Each institution tries to carefully sort the attitudes and rules brought in from other institutions in order to select those attitudes and rules that can least affect the independence of this institution. Social order is a successful combination of the interaction of institutions and their respect for independence in relation to each other. This combination avoids serious and destructive institutional conflicts.

The dual function of intellectuals in relation to institutions. In all complex societies, institutions require constant ideological and organizational support and strengthening of the ideology, the system of norms and rules on which the institution relies. This is done by two role groups members of the institution: 1) bureaucrats who monitor institutional behavior; 2) intellectuals who explain and comment on the ideology, norms and rules of behavior of social institutions. In our case, intellectuals are those who, regardless of education or occupation, devote themselves to the serious analysis of ideas. The importance of ideology lies in maintaining loyalty to institutional norms, through which the heterogeneous attitudes of those people who are able to manipulate ideas are developed. Intellectuals are called upon to satisfy urgent needs for explaining social development, and to do so in terms consistent with institutional norms.

For example, intellectuals associated with political communist institutions set themselves the task of showing that modern history is indeed developing in accordance with the predictions of K. Marx and V. Lenin. At the same time, intellectuals who study US political institutions argue that real history is built on the development of the ideas of free enterprise and democracy. At the same time, the leaders of the institutions understand that intellectuals cannot be completely trusted, since in studying the basic foundations of the ideology they support, they also analyze its imperfections. In this regard, intellectuals can begin to develop a competitive ideology that is more suited to the needs of the times. Such intellectuals become revolutionary and attack traditional institutions. That is why in the course of the formation of totalitarian institutions, first of all, they seek to protect ideology from the actions of intellectuals.

The 1966 campaign in China, which destroyed the influence of the intellectuals, confirmed Mao Zedong's fear that the intellectuals would refuse to support the revolutionary regime. Something similar happened in our country in the prewar years. If we turn to history, we will undoubtedly see that any power based on faith in the ability of leaders (charismatic power), as well as power that uses violence, non-democratic methods, seeks to protect the actions of the institution of power from the participation of intellectuals or completely subordinate them to its influence. . Exceptions only emphasize this rule.

So, it is often difficult to use the activities of intellectuals, because if today they can support institutional norms, then tomorrow they become their critics. Nevertheless, there are no institutions in the modern world that have escaped the constant influence of intellectual criticism, and there are no features of institutions that can continue to exist for a long time without intellectual protection. It becomes clear why some totalitarian political regimes are torn between a certain freedom and the repression of intellectuals. The intellectual most capable of defending fundamental institutions is the person who does so out of a desire for truth, regardless of obligations to institutions. Such a person is both useful and dangerous for the well-being of the institution - useful because he skillfully achieves the protection of institutional values, respect for the institution, and dangerous because, in search of truth, he is able to become an opponent of this institution. This dual role forces fundamental institutions to deal with the problem of ensuring discipline in society and the problem of conflict and loyalty for intellectuals.

4. Correlation of tgp with other sciences studying the state and law

6.Tgp functions.

7. The concept, features and structure of legal practice.

1. Precedent of interpretation

8. Types of legal practice.

2. The following three types of legal practice are clearly distinguished in the Soviet legal system (the names are conditional):

9. Functions of legal practice.

10. Interaction of legal science and practice.

11. The concept of method and methodology in scientific knowledge.

1. By scope

2. By the stage of application (according to the level of the cognitive process)

12. General methods.

13. General scientific methods.

14. Special (private scientific) and private law methods.

16. Power as a way to manage the joint activities of people: concept, features, forms (varieties)

17. Power structure.

18. Types of power.

3) From the point of view of its social level, one can distinguish:

4) In relation to politics

5) By way of organization

8) According to the breadth of distribution, the following types of power are distinguished:

9) According to the methods of interaction between the subject and the object of power, power is distinguished:

19. The concept and properties of state power.

20. Pre-state society

21. Prerequisites for the origin of the state

22. Variety of theories of the origin of the state and law

23.Modern science of the origin of the theory of state and law

Theory of specialization

Eastern (Asian) way of the emergence of the state

Western way of the emergence of the state

24. Basic patterns of development of the state and law

25. Pluralism in understanding and defining the state

26. State: concept, features.

27. The essence of the state

28.Social appointment of the state government

29. The concept of politics. A systematic approach to the analysis of political life.

30. Political system: concept, elements.

31. Place and role of the state in the political system.

34. The concept, meaning and objective nature of the functions of the state. Their relation to tasks and goals.

Correlation with tasks and goals

Algorithm:

35. Types of functions

36. Forms of implementation of functions

37. Methods for the implementation of the functions of the state

38. Functions of the Russian state, their evolution

39. State apparatus: concept, features.

40. Principles of organization of the apparatus of the modern state.

41. State bodies: concept, features, types.

42. The structure of the apparatus of the modern state

3. Legislatures

4. Executive bodies

5. Judiciary

43. The concept and elements of the form of the state.

44. Form of government.

45. Form of government.

1. According to the method of formation of the subjects of the federation are divided into:

2. According to the method of centralization, federations are divided into:

3. According to the situation of the subjects of the federation:

4. By having the right to withdraw from the federation:

5. According to the method of education:

46. ​​Interstate unions.

47. Political regime

Political and state regime: ratio

Democratic regime

Totalitarian regime

Authoritarian regime

48. The ratio of the elements of the form of the state.

49. The form of the modern Russian state

2 Points of view

50. Approaches to the classification of states.

3) Currently, two main approaches to the typology of states dominate in legal and other literature: formational and civilized.

51. Formative approach to the typology of the state.

52. Civilizational approach to the typology of states.

53. The concept of civil society.

15. Society: concept, social institutions

Society- a set of people who have historically lived in a certain territory for generations and are connected by a common economic, social, political and spiritual mark. unified state power and legal system.

People who make up this society have, as a rule, the same customs, religion, language. They subjectively distinguish themselves from people belonging to other communities.

A structurally developed society consists of individuals who form social groups (families, strata, strata, classes) in accordance with tribal, professional, property, national and other characteristics. These subjects realize their interests in activities in relation to each other, which constitute social life.

People are social beings, they cannot live, work, without uniting according to needs and interests, goals. Social and political institutions arise due to biological, social, political and other reasons with an objective necessity.

Institutes

Historically, tribal communities were the first social institution. Genus was a group (community) of people united by consanguinity or alleged kinship, common property, joint labor and equal distribution. This social institution was very stable and viable. It ensured the survival of people who were still largely dependent on natural forces and could only exist on the basis of collective economic and social unity.

Clans existed and functioned for many millennia, they united into larger social institutions - tribes.

Later, religious associations (orders, etc.), merchant guilds and other social institutions.

Historically the first political institution, the most important and largest, was the state. As society becomes more complex and democracy develops, new socio-production (cooperatives), socio-political (trade unions), political (political parties) and other institutions emerge.

Social institutions

Society is formed from a system of social institutions and is a complex set of economic, political, legal, spiritual relations that ensure its integrity as social system.

Social institution in the broadest sense- historically established, stable forms of organization of joint activities of people; social institution in a narrower sense- it is an organized system of social relations and norms, designed to satisfy the basic needs of society, social groups and individuals.

Main purpose social institutions - the achievement of stability in the course of the development of society.

Allocatefunctionssocialinstitutions:

1. Meeting the needs of society.

Needs, which are satisfied by social institutions are diverse. For example, society's need for security can be supported by the institution of defense, spiritual needs - by the church, needs for knowledge of the surrounding world - by science. Each institution can satisfy several needs (the church is able to satisfy its own religious, moral, cultural needs), and the same need can be satisfied by different institutions (spiritual needs can be satisfied by art, science, religion, etc.).

2. The function of fixing and reproduction public relations. Any institution consolidates, standardizes the behavior of members of society through its rules, norms of behavior. Each institution has a set of norms and rules of conduct, fixed, standardizing the behavior of its members and making this behavior predictable. Social control provides the order and framework in which the activities of each member of the institution must proceed. Thus, the institution ensures the stability of the structure of society. The Code of the Institute of the Family assumes that members of society are divided into stable small groups - families. social control provides a state of stability for each family, limits the possibility of its collapse.

3. Regulatory function ensures the regulation of relationships between members of society by developing patterns of behavior, regulation of their actions. It ensures the regulation of relationships between members of society by developing patterns and patterns of behavior. All human life takes place with the participation of different social institutions, but each social institution regulates activities. Consequently, a person, with the help of social institutions, demonstrates predictability and standard behavior, fulfills role requirements and expectations.

4. Integrative function includes the process of interdependence and mutual responsibility of members of social groups. This function ensures cohesion, interdependence and irresponsibility of members. This happens under the influence of institutionalized norms, values, rules, a system of roles and sanctions. It streamlines the system of interactions, which leads to an increase in the stability and integrity of the elements of the social structure.

5. Broadcasting function(socialization). Its content is the transfer of social experience, familiarization with the values, norms, roles of this society. Society cannot develop without the transfer of social experience. Each institution for its normal functioning needs the arrival of new people who have learned its rules. This happens by changing the social boundaries of the institution and changing generations. Consequently, each institution provides a mechanism for socialization to its values, norms, roles.

6. Communicative functions. The information produced by the institution should be disseminated both within the institution (for the purpose of managing and monitoring compliance with social norms) and in interaction between institutions. This function has its own specifics - formal connections. This is the main function of the media institute. Scientific institutions actively receive information. The commutative possibilities of institutions are not the same: some have them to a greater extent, others to a lesser extent.

The structure of a social institution form:

social groups and social organizations designed to meet the needs of groups, individuals;

totality norms, social values ​​and patterns of behavior that ensure the satisfaction of needs;

a system of symbols that regulate relations in the economic sphere of activity (trademark, flag, brand, etc.);

ideological substantiation of the activities of a social institution;

social resources used in the activities of the institute.

In accordance with the spheres of public life, four main groups of institutions can be distinguished:

economic institutions - division of labor own, market, trade, wage, banking system, exchange, management, marketing etc.;

political institutions- state, army, militia, police, parliamentarism, presidency, monarchy, court, parties, civil society;

institutions of stratification and kinship - class, estate, caste, sex discrimination, racial segregation, nobility, welfare, family, marriage, paternity, motherhood, adoption, twinning;

cultural institutions- school, higher school, secondary vocational education, theaters, museums, clubs, libraries, church, monasticism, confession.