St. Petersburg State

University of Architecture and Civil Engineering.

Department of Political Science.

On the topic of: « Social institutions society."

IV year student, gr. 2IP

Faculty of Civil Engineering: Piskunov G.M.

Head: Lokushansky I.N.

Saint Petersburg

Plan.

I) Introduction.

II) 1. The concept of “Social institution”.

2. Evolution of social institutions.

3. Typology of social institutions.

4. Functions and dysfunctions of social institutions.

5. Education as a social institution.

III) Conclusion.

Introduction.

Social practice shows that it is vital for human society to consolidate certain types of social relations, to make them mandatory for members of a certain society or a certain social group. This primarily refers to those social relationships, by entering into which, members of a social group ensure the satisfaction of the most important needs necessary for the successful functioning of the group as an integral social unit. Thus, the need for the reproduction of material wealth forces people to consolidate and maintain production relations; The need to socialize the younger generation and educate young people based on the examples of the group’s culture forces us to consolidate and maintain family relationships and the learning relationships of young people.

The practice of consolidating relationships aimed at satisfying urgent needs consists of creating a rigidly fixed system of roles and statuses that prescribe rules of behavior for individuals in social relationships, as well as defining a system of sanctions in order to achieve strict compliance with these rules of behavior.

Systems of roles, statuses and sanctions are created in the form of social institutions, which are the most complex and important types of social connections for society. It is social institutions that support joint cooperative activities in organizations and determine sustainable patterns of behavior, ideas and incentives.

The concept of “institution” is one of the central ones in sociology, therefore the study of institutional connections is one of the main scientific tasks, facing sociologists.

The concept of “Social institution”.

The term “social institution” is used in a wide variety of meanings.

One of the first to give a detailed definition of a social institution was the American sociologist and economist T. Veblen. He viewed the evolution of society as a process of natural selection of social institutions. By their nature, they represent habitual ways of responding to stimuli that are created by external changes.

Another American sociologist, Charles Mills, understood an institution as the form of a certain set of social roles. He classified institutions according to the tasks they performed (religious, military, educational, etc.), which form the institutional order.

The German sociologist A. Gehlen interprets an institution as a regulatory institution that directs the actions of people in a certain direction, just as institutions guide the behavior of animals.

According to L. Bovier, a social institution is a system of cultural elements aimed at satisfying a set of specific social needs or goals.

J. Bernard and L. Thompson interpret an institution as a set of norms and patterns of behavior. This is a complex configuration of customs, traditions, beliefs, attitudes, laws that have a specific purpose and perform specific functions.

In Russian sociological literature, a social institution is defined as the main component of the social structure of society, integrating and coordinating many individual actions of people, streamlining social relations in certain spheres public life.

According to S.S. Frolov, a social institution is an organized system of connections and social norms that unites significant social values ​​and procedures that satisfy the basic needs of society.

According to M.S. Komarov, social institutions are value-normative complexes through which people’s actions in vital areas – economics, politics, culture, family, etc. – are directed and controlled.

If we summarize all the variety of approaches outlined above, then a social institution is:

A role system, which also includes norms and statuses;

A set of customs, traditions and rules of behavior;

Formal and informal organization;

A set of norms and institutions regulating a certain area

public relations;

A separate set of social actions.

That. we see that the term “social institution” can have different definitions:

A social institution is an organized association of people performing certain socially significant functions that ensure the joint achievement of goals based on the members’ fulfillment of their social roles, defined by social values, norms and patterns of behavior.

Social institutions are institutions designed to satisfy the fundamental needs of society.

A social institution is a set of norms and institutions regulating a certain area of ​​social relations.

A social institution is an organized system of connections and social norms that brings together significant social values ​​and procedures that satisfy the basic needs of society.

Evolution of social institutions.

The process of institutionalization, i.e. formation of a social institution consists of several successive stages:

The emergence of a need, the satisfaction of which requires joint organized actions;

Formation of common goals;

The emergence of social norms and rules in the course of spontaneous social interaction carried out by trial and error;

The emergence of procedures related to norms and regulations;

Institutionalization of norms and rules, procedures, i.e. their acceptance, practical application;

Establishment of a system of sanctions to maintain norms and rules, differentiation of their application in individual cases;

Creation of a system of statuses and roles covering all members of the institute without exception.

The birth and death of a social institution can be clearly seen in the example of the institution of noble duels of honor. Duels were an institutionalized method of clarifying relations between nobles in the period from the 16th to the 18th centuries. This institution of honor arose due to the need to protect the honor of the nobleman and streamline relations between representatives of this social stratum. Gradually, a system of procedures and norms developed and spontaneous quarrels and scandals turned into highly formalized fights and duels with specialized roles (chief manager, seconds, doctors, service personnel). This institution supported the ideology of untarnished noble honor, accepted mainly in the privileged strata of society. The institution of duels provided for fairly strict standards for the protection of the code of honor: a nobleman who received a challenge to a duel had to either accept the challenge or leave public life with the shameful stigma of cowardly cowardice. But with the development of capitalist relations they changed ethical standards in society, which was expressed, in particular, in the unnecessaryness of defending noble honor with weapons in hand. An example of the decline of the institution of duels is Abraham Lincoln's absurd choice of dueling weapon: throwing potatoes from a distance of 20 m. So this institution gradually ceased to exist.

Typology of social institutions.

Social institutions are divided into main (basic, fundamental) and non-main (non-basic, frequent). The latter are hidden inside the former, being part of them as smaller formations.

In addition to dividing institutions into main and non-main, they can be classified according to other criteria. For example, institutions may differ in the time of their origin and duration of existence (permanent and short-term institutions), the severity of sanctions applied for violations of the rules, the conditions of existence, the presence or absence of a bureaucratic management system, the presence or absence of formal rules and procedures.

Charles Mills counted five institutional orders in modern society, actually meaning by this the main institutions:

Economic – institutions that organize economic activity;

Political – institutions of power;

Family - institutions that regulate sexual relations, the birth and socialization of children;

Military – institutions that protect members of society from physical danger;

Religious - institutions that organize the collective veneration of gods.

The purpose of social institutions is to satisfy the most important vital needs of society as a whole. There are five such basic needs, and they correspond to five basic social institutions:

The need for reproduction of the family (the institution of family and marriage).

The need for security and social order (the institution of the state and other political institutions).

The need for obtaining and producing means of subsistence (economic institutions).

The need for the transfer of knowledge, socialization of the younger generation, training (institute of education).

Needs for solving spiritual problems, the meaning of life (institute of religion).

Non-core institutions are also called social practices. Each main institute has its own systems of established practices, methods, techniques, and procedures. Thus, economic institutions cannot do without such mechanisms and practices as currency conversion, protection of private property,

professional selection, placement and evaluation of workers, marketing,

market, etc. Within the institution of family and marriage are the institutions of fatherhood and motherhood, naming, family revenge, inheritance of the social status of parents, etc.

Non-main political institutions include, for example, the institutions of forensic examination, passport registration, legal proceedings, the legal profession, juries, judicial control over arrests, the judiciary, the presidency, etc.

Everyday practices that help organize the coordinated actions of large groups of people bring certainty and predictability to social reality, thereby supporting the existence of social institutions.

Functions and dysfunctions of social institutions.

Function(from Latin - execution, implementation) - the purpose or role that a certain social institution or process performs in relation to the whole (for example, the function of the state, family, etc. in society.)

Function of a social institution is the benefit it brings to society, i.e. This is a set of tasks to be solved, goals to be achieved, and services provided.

The first and most important mission of social institutions is to satisfy the most important vital needs of society, i.e. something without which society cannot exist as a current one. Indeed, if we want to understand what the essence of the function of this or that institution is, we must directly connect it with the satisfaction of needs. E. Durheim was one of the first to point out this connection: “To ask what the function of the division of labor is means to investigate what need it corresponds to.”

No society can exist if it is not constantly replenished with new generations of people, obtaining food, living in peace and order, acquiring new knowledge and passing it on to next generations, and dealing with spiritual issues.

List of universal ones, i.e. The functions inherent in all institutions can be continued by including the function of consolidating and reproducing social relations, regulatory, integrative, broadcasting and communicative functions.

Along with universal ones, there are specific functions. These are functions that are inherent in some institutions and not in others, for example, establishing order in society (state), discovery and transfer of new knowledge (science and education), etc.

Society is structured in such a way that a number of institutions perform several functions simultaneously, and at the same time, several institutions can specialize in performing one function. For example, the function of raising or socializing children is performed by institutions such as the family, church, school, and state. At the same time, the institution of the family performs not only the function of education and socialization, but also such functions as the reproduction of people, satisfaction in intimacy, etc.

At the dawn of its emergence, the state performs a narrow range of tasks, primarily related to establishing and maintaining internal and external security. However, as society became more complex, so did the state. Today it not only protects borders, fights crime, but also regulates the economy, provides social security and assistance to the poor, collects taxes and supports healthcare, science, schools, etc.

The Church was created to resolve important ideological issues and establish the highest moral standards. But with

Over time, she also began to engage in education, economic activity(monastic economy), preservation and transfer of knowledge, research work(religious schools, gymnasiums, etc.), guardianship.

If an institution, in addition to benefits, brings harm to society, then such an action is called dysfunction. An institution is said to be dysfunctional when some of the consequences of its activities interfere with the implementation of other social activities or another institution. Or, as one of the sociological dictionaries defines dysfunction, it is “any social activity that makes a negative contribution to the maintenance effective activities social system."

For example, as economic institutions develop, they place greater demands on the social functions that an educational institution must perform.

It is the needs of the economy that lead in industrial societies to the development of mass literacy, and then to the need to train an increasing number of qualified specialists. But if the educational institution does not cope with its task, if education is delivered very poorly, or trains the wrong specialists that the economy requires, then society will not receive either developed individuals or first-class professionals. Schools and universities will produce routinists, amateurs, and half-knowledgeable people, which means that economic institutions will be unable to satisfy the needs of society.

This is how functions turn into dysfunctions, plus into minus.

Therefore, the activity of a social institution is considered as a function if it contributes to maintaining stability and integration of society.

The functions and dysfunctions of social institutions are obvious, if they are clearly expressed, recognized by everyone and quite obvious, or latent, if they are hidden and remain unconscious to participants in the social system.

The explicit functions of institutions are expected and necessary. They are formed and declared in codes and enshrined in a system of statuses and roles.

Latent functions are the unintended result of the activities of institutions or individuals representing them.

The democratic state that was established in Russia in the early 90s with the help of new institutions of power - parliament, government and the president, seemingly sought to improve the lives of the people, create civilized relations in society and instill in citizens respect for the law. These were the obvious, stated goals and objectives that everyone heard. In reality, crime has increased in the country, and the standard of living has fallen. These were the by-products of the efforts of government institutions.

Explicit functions indicate what people wanted to achieve within a particular institution, and latent functions indicate what came out of it.

The explicit functions of the school as an educational institution include

acquiring literacy and a matriculation certificate, preparing for university, learning professional roles, assimilating the basic values ​​of society. But the institution of school also has hidden functions: acquiring a certain social status that will allow a graduate to climb a step above an illiterate peer, establishing strong friendly school connections, supporting graduates at the time of their entry into the labor market.

Not to mention a whole range of latent functions such as shaping the interaction of the classroom, the hidden curriculum and student subcultures.

Explicit, i.e. Quite obvious functions of the institution of higher education can be considered the preparation of young people to master various special roles and the assimilation of the value standards, morality and ideology prevailing in society, and the implicit ones are the consolidation of social inequality between those who have higher education and those who do not have one.

Education as a social institution.

Material and spiritual values ​​and knowledge accumulated by humanity must be passed on to new generations, therefore maintaining the achieved level of development and its improvement is impossible without mastering the cultural heritage. Education is an essential component of the process of personal socialization.

In sociology, it is customary to distinguish between formal and informal education. The term formal education implies the existence in society of special institutions (schools, universities) that carry out the learning process. The functioning of the formal education system is determined by the prevailing cultural standards and political guidelines in society, which are embodied in state policy in the field of education.

The term informal education refers to the unsystematized training of a person with knowledge and skills that he spontaneously masters in the process of communicating with the surrounding social environment or through individual assimilation of information. For all its importance, non-formal education plays a supporting role in relation to the formal education system.

The most significant features of the modern education system are:

Transforming it into a multi-stage one (primary, secondary and higher education);

Decisive impact on the individual (essentially, education is the main factor in its socialization);

Predetermining to a large extent career opportunities and achieving a high social position.

The Institute of Education ensures social stability and integration of society by performing the following functions:

Transmission and dissemination of culture in society (for it is through education that scientific knowledge, artistic achievements, moral standards, etc. are transmitted from generation to generation);

Formation of attitudes among younger generations, value orientations and ideals dominant in society;

Social selection, or a differentiated approach to students (one of the most important functions of formal education, when the search for talented youth in modern society is elevated to the rank of state policy);

Social and cultural change realized in the process of scientific research and discovery (modern institutions of formal education, primarily universities, are the main or one of the most important scientific centers in all branches of knowledge).

The model of the social structure of education can be represented as

consisting of three main components:

Students;

Teachers;

Organizers and leaders of education.

In modern society, education is the most important means of achieving success and a symbol of a person’s social position. Expanding the circle of highly educated people and improving the formal education system have an impact on social mobility in society, make it more open and perfect.

Conclusion.

Social institutions appear in society as large unplanned products social life. How does this happen? People in social groups are trying to realize their needs together and are looking for various ways. In the course of social practice, they find some acceptable patterns, patterns of behavior, which gradually, through repetition and evaluation, turn into standardized customs and habits. After some time, these patterns and patterns of behavior are supported by public opinion, accepted and legitimized. On this basis, a system of sanctions is being developed. Thus, the custom of making a date, being an element of the institution of courtship, developed as a means of choosing a partner. Banks, an element of the business institution, developed as a need for accumulation, movement, loans and saving of money and as a result turned into an independent institution. Members from time to time. societies or social groups can collect, systematize and give legal evidence of these practical skills and patterns, as a result of which institutions change and develop.

Based on this, institutionalization is the process of defining and consolidating social norms, rules, statuses and roles, bringing them into a system that is capable of acting in the direction of satisfying some social need. Institutionalization is the replacement of spontaneous and experimental behavior with predictable behavior that is expected, modeled, and regulated. Thus, the pre-institutional phase of a social movement is characterized by spontaneous protests and speeches, disorderly behavior. Appear on short term, and then the leaders of the movement are displaced; their appearance depends mainly on energetic calls.

Every day a new adventure is possible, every meeting is characterized by an unpredictable sequence of emotional events in which a person cannot imagine what he will do next.

When institutional moments appear in a social movement, the formation of certain rules and norms of behavior begins, shared by the majority of its followers. A place for a gathering or meeting is designated, a clear schedule of speeches is determined; Each participant is given instructions on how to behave in a given situation. These norms and rules are gradually accepted and become taken for granted. At the same time, a system of social statuses and roles begins to take shape. Stable leaders appear, who are formalized according to the accepted procedure (for example, elected or appointed). In addition, each participant in the movement has a certain status and performs a corresponding role: he can be a member of an organizational activist, be part of leader support groups, be an agitator or ideologist, etc. Excitement gradually weakens under the influence of certain norms, and the behavior of each participant becomes standardized and predictable. The prerequisites for organized joint action are emerging. As a result, the social movement becomes more or less institutionalized.

So, an institution is a unique form of human activity based on a clearly developed ideology, a system of rules and norms, as well as developed social control over their implementation. Institutional activities are carried out by people organized in groups or associations, where they are divided into statuses and roles in accordance with the needs of a given social group or society as a whole. Institutions thus maintain social structures and order in society.

Bibliography:

1. Frolov S.S. Sociology. M.: Nauka, 1994

2. Methodological instructions for sociology. SPbGASU, 2002

3. Volkov Yu.G. Sociology. M. 2000

1.Plan………………………………………………………………………………1

2. Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………..2

3. The concept of “Social institution”………………………………………………………..3

4. Evolution of social institutions…………………………………………..5

5. Typology of social institutions……………………………………….…...6

6. Functions and dysfunctions of social institutions……………………….……8

7. Education as a social institution……………………………..….…...11

8. Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………….13

9. List of references…………………………………………………………….……..………15

There are three fundamental institutions of society, and the fourth - spiritual - includes culture, science, religion and education.

The term “institute” (Latin institutum - establishment, arrangement) has many meanings. Over time, it acquired two meanings - narrow technical (the name of specialized scientific and educational institutions) and broad social (a set of legal norms for a certain range of social relations, for example, the institution of marriage, the institution of inheritance).

The first definition of the concept “institution of society”

Understanding social institutions as a set of norms and mechanisms that regulate a certain sphere of social relations (family, production, state, education, religion), they deepened our understanding of them as the pillars on which society rests. Their purpose is to satisfy the most important (fundamental) vital needs of society.

There are only four of them, but there are exactly four main social institutions:

The institution of family and marriage is the need for the reproduction of people,
economic institutions - the need to obtain a livelihood,
political institutions - the need for security and social order,
spiritual institutions - the need to solve spiritual problems, develop and transfer new knowledge, socialize the younger generation.

So, the first and most common understanding of a social institution is the adaptive structure of society, created to satisfy its most important needs and regulated by a set of social norms.

Institutions arose in ancient times. Scientists count production as 2 million years old, if we take the first tool created by man as a starting point. Anthropologists assign second place to the family and believe that the lower limit runs at around 500 thousand years. Since then, it has constantly evolved, taking many forms and varieties: polygamy, polyandry, monogamy, cohabitation, nuclear, extended, incomplete, etc. The state is about the same age as education, namely 5-6 thousand years. If with the first everything is quite clear and you can make a mistake by one or two thousand years, then with education the situation is more complicated. IN this moment An institution is a collection of people and social organizations. Schools, technical schools, universities, various courses, etc., plus the Ministry of Education and its apparatus, research institutes, editorial offices of magazines and newspapers, printing houses and much more that is related to pedagogy, constitute a social institution of education.

The second definition of the concept “institution of society”

Scientists give a second definition of a social institution as a set of social customs, the embodiment of certain habits of behavior, way of thinking and way of life, passed on from generation to generation, changing depending on circumstances and serving as a tool for adaptation to them. This is how lawyers understand the terms “institution” (establishment, custom, order accepted in society) and “institution” (consolidation of customs and orders in the form of a law or institution). Hence the word “institutionalization,” which denotes the consolidation of a practice or area of ​​social relations in the form of a law or social norm, an accepted order.

Thus, the institutionalization of any science, for example sociology, involves the publication of state standards and regulations, the creation of research institutes, bureaus, services and laboratories, the opening of relevant faculties, departments, departments and courses at universities, colleges and schools, training professional specialists, publication of journals, monographs and textbooks, etc. Essentially, institutionalization is an ordered system that can rightfully be considered a social organization.

Social function of society's institutions

So, the concept of “social institution” is not an abstraction. It denotes a real set of people working in a given field, as well as a system of specific laws, management decisions and practical activities. These are quite visible objects - buildings, bridges, factories, personnel, residential apartments, equipment, which clearly show the functioning of this institution. Eg, governmental support The institution of the family is expressed in cash benefits, the construction of kindergartens, schools, hospitals, etc.

A social institution is also a gigantic social system, covering statuses and roles, social norms and sanctions, social organizations (enterprises, universities, firms, agencies, etc.) that have personnel, management apparatus and special procedures or practices. Social institutions are historically established, stable forms of organizing joint activities aimed at meeting the fundamental needs of society.

Basic institutions of society

Social institution – historically established, stable forms of organizing joint activities of people; an organized system of social connections and norms designed to satisfy the basic needs of society, social groups and individuals.

Conditions for the emergence of a system of social institutions:

A) a social need for a given institution must exist in society and be recognized by the majority of individuals;
b) society must have necessary means satisfying this need - with resources (material, labor, organizational), a system of functions, actions, individual goal-setting, symbols and norms that form the cultural environment on the basis of which a new institution will be formed.

Social institutions – 1) elements of society, representing stable forms of organization and regulation of social life; 2) value-normative complexes (values, rules, norms, attitudes, patterns, standards of behavior in certain situations), as well as bodies and organizations that ensure their implementation and approval in the life of society; 3) a certain organization of social activity and social relations, carried out through standards of behavior, the emergence and grouping of which into a system are determined by the content of a specific task solved by this institution.

Main features (signs) of a social institution:

1. Each institute has its own goal of activity, mission, ideology.
2. Has an organized system of formal and informal structures.
3. Defines a system of cultural patterns, customs, traditions, values, symbols, rules of human behavior and a stable set of social actions (behavior) in accordance with these norms and patterns.
4. Clearly defines the functions, rights and responsibilities of interaction participants to achieve the goal.
5. Possesses certain means (material and by human resourses) and institutions to achieve the goal. They can be both material and ideal, symbolic.
6. Has a certain system of sanctions that encourage desired behavior and suppress deviant behavior.

The structure of a social institution includes: social groups and organizations designed to satisfy the needs of groups, individuals; a set of norms, social values ​​and patterns of behavior that ensure the satisfaction of needs; a system of symbols regulating relations in a certain field of activity (trademark, flag, brand, etc.); ideological justifications for the activities of a social institution; social resources used in the activities of the institute.

The main goal of social institutions is to achieve stability during the development of society.

Types of social institutions are classified:

1. By spheres of society: a) economic (division of labor, property, market, trade, wages, banking system, stock exchange, management, marketing, etc.); b) political (state, army, police, parliamentarism, presidency, monarchy, court, parties, civil society); c) stratification and kinship (class, estate, caste, gender discrimination, racial segregation, nobility, social Security, family, marriage, paternity, maternity, adoption, twinning); d) culture (school, higher school, secondary vocational education, theaters, museums, clubs, libraries, church, monasticism, confession).
2. Depending on their field of activity: a) relational institutions (for example, insurance, labor, production) determine the role structure of society based on a certain set of characteristics; b) regulatory institutions determine the boundaries of an individual’s independence and his actions to achieve his own goals. This group includes institutions of the state, government, social protection, business, healthcare.
3. According to functional qualities.
4. By lifetime, etc.

Social institutions are distinguished by the diversity and dynamism of their functions.

State society institutions

Civil society is most often understood as either simply human society, or those forms of sociality that influence politics, or public groups in opposition to the state. In any case, the main significance of civil society is that it relieves the tension between the state, local social groups and individuals, which inevitably arises as public space expands and social differentiation deepens.

The model in which civil society and the state cooperate with each other is considered the most optimal, but the condition for its effectiveness is the relative homogeneity of the interests and value systems of individuals and social groups.

In the liberal democratic tradition (J. St. Mill, A. de Tocqueville, I. Berlin), the emphasis is on the freedom and independence of civil society, which forms a number of protective structures between the individual and the state. This ensures freedom from outside interference, without specifying with what resources and how it can be realized.

The social democratic tradition is based on the belief that the democratization of political life must begin with the democratization of civil society. The state, according to this point of view, should participate in ensuring the normal functioning of civil institutions as a guarantor of their democratic governance and the cessation of the expansionism of individual institutions (for example, the market may exhibit expansionism in relation to other institutions).

The best approach seems to be the centrist approach to the analysis of civil society, presented in the work of M. Walser “Spheres of Justice”: the state does not need to try to shape the goals that people pursue in various fields life; Much more important is its controlling and regulatory role in the functioning of civil society institutions.

In domestic literature, the synonymy of the concepts “civil society” and “political democracy” is often noted, although in fact the concept of “political democracy” in to a greater extent characterizes the political regime, and “civil society” is a sociological description of a special type of society and its relationship with the state.

"Open society" and "civil society" are often viewed as subordinate concepts. The first indicates the fact that society, like any open system in nature, has the means of self-organization and self-improvement. An open society recognizes the rule of law, human freedom, and existence without violence as the highest values. This idea was formulated by Karl Popper in his work The Open Society and Its Enemies.

The concept of “civil society” implies a way of implementing and interconnecting all types of law-consistent human activity, which is autonomous from power and acts as a source of social development.

Civil society is a society consisting of free citizens, independent from the arbitrariness of the state, capable of defending their rights and interests.

The main features of civil society: - differentiation of the competence of the state and society, independence of civil society institutions from the state within the framework of their competence.

Democracy and pluralism in the political sphere;

Market economy, the basis of which is non-state enterprises;
- highly developed economy based on industrial and post-industrial technologies;
- the social basis of civil society is the middle class - citizens economically, politically and socially independent from the state who have the opportunity and ability to provide for themselves;
- in the legal sphere, close interaction has been established with the rule of law, the priority of the rights and freedoms of the individual over the interests of the state;
- ideological and religious pluralism;
- freedom of speech and media.

The relationship between civil society and the state does not reject any form of state government, provided that the state allows the politically active population to control state power. The most effective in this sense are republics and parliamentary monarchies. The structure of government bodies allows for different options, but it must prevent (for example, through a system of “separation of powers”) the concentration and uncontrolled exercise of government power, and also include an independent judiciary.

Civil society presupposes any form of government, any type of local government, but provided that this does not deny the freedom of local communities of citizens, and state intervention in local affairs is limited by law. The state structure in the conditions of civil society ensures the territorial dispersion of political power and its demonopolization.

Given the multidirectionality of private interests, civil society is not able to assume power functions, but it represents a set of non-governmental institutions that are strong enough to be a counterbalance to the state and, without encroaching on its role as a guarantor of peace and an arbiter of basic interests, be able to allow "the atomization of society and domination over it."

In the political sphere, the task of creating a nation belongs to civil society, while at the same time the task of stabilizing this process belongs to the state. If the content of the concept of “state” is the sphere of realization of generally significant interests of social groups, classes, ethnic groups, then the content of the concept of “civil society” is the sphere of realization of the everyday interests of individuals. If the state is based on the constitution, power, coercion, law, then only persuasion, legal and moral norms, traditions, customs, art, and so on can act as means of realizing the goals of civil society.

The basis of the state are political institutions, legislative, executive and judicial authorities, political leaders and the political elite. The basis of civil society is recognized as a free individual with his inalienable rights and non-political organizations with the help of which he realizes them.

Political forces (parties, movements, pressure groups, etc.) act as a link between the state and civil society.

There are two possible options for interaction between civil society and the state:

Civil society genetically and functionally precedes legal society. State power, as the object of action on the part of the politically active public, implements its initiative in the form of laws. This option is ideally appropriate and theoretically possible;
- a more realistic other: the rule of law does not “ripen” from the depths of the civil one, but is proclaimed “existing” and itself initiates the formation of a civil state.

In each case - the organic “maturation” of civil society institutions or their design “from above” - the active role of the state in the political and legislative support of the reform and functioning of civil society is obvious.

Ensuring human rights and their real nature are determined by two factors: the presence of civil society and the rule of law.

Civil society is a sphere that contributes to the maximum extent to the independent activity of citizens and the free development of the individual, which leads to the priority of the interests of the individual and society as a whole in their relations with the state.

The rule of law, which ensures the supremacy of laws and guarantees the rights and freedoms of man and citizen, is an indispensable condition for the existence of civil society. The latter can only exist in a democratic political system, since it is a mechanism for realizing the most important rights and freedoms of man and citizen. A democratic political system is characterized by a ramified internal structure public organizations, local governments and administrative government bodies that guarantee compliance with these rights and freedoms.

Three types of relationships between a citizen and the state can be distinguished:

Paternalistic, statist - identification of society and the state, understanding of the citizen as a “cog” in a complex state mechanism, denial of the rights and freedoms of the citizen, establishment of total state control over the life of the citizen, determination by the state of the status and rights of the citizen. This type of relationship between citizen and state dominated in the USSR for a long time;
- individualistic, liberal - recognition that a free citizen is the primary source of any state power, the priority of the individual in relation to the state, limiting the independence of a citizen by the volume of his rights and freedoms, limiting the state by civil society, minimizing its functions. Traditionally consisted in Western Europe, the USA and other countries on the basis of the idea of ​​the state as the subject of the approval of morality (Plato, Aristotle, Hegel), the achievement of general security (Hobbes), the protection of private property rights (Locke), the achievement of the public good (Grotius), the approval universal freedom (Rousseau, Lassalle);
- communitarianism - on the one hand, opposes liberalism and criticizes its fundamental ideas: the individualistic understanding of the individual, liberal universalism, the atomistic idea of ​​society, and hence the priority of human rights over other values, the procedural nature of liberal democracy, the priority of private life over public life. On the other hand, communitarianism is also opposed to collectivism, which, from this point of view, means monotony, conformism and a tendency towards repression towards the individual. Thus, communitarianism is based on the ideas of the development of individuality, tolerance, and pluralism. (A. McIntyre, M. Walzer, M. Sandel, C. Taylor and others).

Civil society is an important subsystem of society as a whole, which coincides with the social sphere of public life.

The concept of “civil society” includes the entire set of non-political (non-state) relations in society, that is, economic, moral, cultural-spiritual, religious, national.

Civil society is the sphere of spontaneous manifestation of free individuals, associations and organizations of citizens who have voluntarily formed and are protected by law from direct interference and arbitrary regulation by government authorities.

The economic basis of civil society is property in all its diversity of forms, primarily private, cooperative, associative, collective and others.

The institutions of civil society are:

Voluntary public organizations and social movements, as well as parties in the first stages of their existence, while they are not involved in the mechanisms of exercising power;
- independent media;
- public opinion as a social institution;
- elections and referendums, if they help to form and demonstrate public opinion and protect group interests;
- elements of the judicial and law enforcement system dependent on citizens (jury trials, people's police forces, etc.).

Civil society is not only a sphere, but also a type of interaction, a certain model of social organization with its inherent qualitative characteristics, namely:

The subjects of interaction in civil society are free and equal individuals who believe in their ability to solve problems;
- collective problems are not alien to them and they are focused on public affairs;
- individualism and competition in their activities are combined with relations of mutual trust and cooperation, the ability to compromise, balance and tolerance.
Civil society is an organization of people who unite around independently chosen goals and function on permanent basis.

It is civil society that guarantees every person a free choice of their economic life, affirms the priority of human rights, excludes the monopoly of one ideology, a single worldview, and guarantees freedom of conscience. Civil society must be based on freedom, equal rights, self-organization and self-regulation.

Civil society is a system of self-governing relations between citizens, not mediated by government institutions. In civil society, due to the instrumentalization of man and new forms of social inequality, the material “body” of industrial commodity civilization is growing, but immediately a field of freedom is born, which provokes initiative energy and social dynamics, unprecedented for traditional society, and gives rise to a person of success.

Institutions of social life

The concept of “social institution” was introduced into sociology by Herbert Spencer. One of the first to give a detailed definition of a social institution was the American sociologist and economist Thorstein Veblen. His book “The Theory of the Leisure Class” is still not outdated.

Social institutions:

1) historically established stable forms of organizing joint activities, regulated by norms, traditions, customs, and aimed at meeting the fundamental needs of society (family, production, state, education, religion);
2) a set of social customs, the embodiment of certain habits of behavior, way of thinking and way of life, passed on from generation to generation, changing depending on circumstances and serving as a tool for adaptation to them.

Signs of a social institution:

Version No. 1:

1) a set of persons engaged in a certain type of activity;
2) a system of legal and moral norms, traditions and customs regulating relevant types of behavior;
3) the presence of institutions equipped with the material resources necessary for any type of activity;
4) connection with the socio-political, legal, value structure of society;
5) a clear delineation of the functions of each of the subjects of interaction.

Version No. 2:

1) a set of social roles;
2) a complex of stable generally accepted models of behavior;
3) a set of norms governing behavior;
4) the basic values ​​underlying these norms;
5) symbols.

Version No. 3:

1) attitudes and patterns of behavior;
2) cultural symbols;
3) utilitarian cultural traits - material means and conditions;
4) oral and written codes of conduct;
5) ideology (for a family - romantic love, or compatibility, or individualism).

Stages of institutionalization:

1) the emergence of an urgent need, awareness of it by society, the formation of common goals;
2) the gradual development of social norms designed to regulate the relevant area;
3) creation of a special system of signs and symbols;
4) the emergence of an appropriate system of statuses and roles;
5) creation of the material base of a social institution;
6) inclusion of an established institution in the existing social system, the formation of a set of sanctions to ensure expected behavior.

Main social institutions:

1) institutions of family and marriage;
2) political institutions, especially the state;
3) economic institutions;
4) institutes of education, science and culture;
5) institute of religion.

Minor (non-main) institutions, which are included in the main ones, perform specific tasks.

Examples:

1) economic institutions include the institution of property, designed to regulate relations of ownership, use, distribution;
2) the institution of family includes the institution of marriage, associated with the position, rights and responsibilities of the spouses.

Formal and informal institutions.

In formal institutions, interaction between subjects is carried out on the basis of formally agreed rules, laws, regulations, regulations, etc.

Informal institutions (friendship), although regulated in social actions and connections, are not formalized by law or regulations.

Functions of social institutions. Explicit functions and hidden, latent ones (Robert Merton). The main function of any institution is to satisfy a specific need.

Those functions that are openly defined, written down in laws, programs, charters, officially declared, are called explicit.

Since the explicit functions of social institutions are always announced, they turn out to be more formalized and controlled by society. If an institution fails to fulfill its obvious functions, it faces disorganization and change.

Explicit functions of social institutions:

1) socialization function;
2) regulatory;
3) integrative;
4) communicative.

Hidden (latent) functions of social institutions are those functions that are actually carried out.

Latent (lat. latens - hidden) - hidden, not externally manifested.

Thorstein Veblen: “... it would be naive to believe that people eat black caviar because they want to satisfy their hunger; or they buy a luxurious Cadillac because they want to buy a good car; it is obvious that these things are not purchased for the sake of acquiring obvious urgent needs. Here the need to increase one’s own prestige is satisfied.”

The explicit functions of the school include acquiring knowledge, preparing for university, and mastering the basic values ​​of society. Latent functions of school: the emergence of strong friendships, the acquisition of a certain social status.

Sometimes the latent functions are completely identical to the declared ones, but usually there is a small or very deep lag (divergence, difference) between real and formal activities. For example, quite often a phenomenon that is incomprehensible at first glance arises: an institution continues to exist and even function successfully in a situation where it not only does not fulfill its functions, but also interferes with their implementation. It is obvious that such an institution has hidden functions, i.e. it satisfies the needs of certain social groups (this is often observed among political institutions in which latent functions are most developed).

The discrepancy between the formal and real activities of institutions is a unique indicator of the instability of society.

Dysfunctions of a social institution are a violation of the normal interaction of a social institution with the social environment (society).

What are the dysfunctions of a social institution:

1) unclear goals;
2) uncertainty of functions;
3) decline in social prestige;
4) subordination to the interests of individuals (personalization).

Total institutions are institutions that cover the full daily cycle of their wards (army, penitentiary system).

Penitentiary (Middle Latin poenitentiarius - penitent, correctional) - in a number of countries - prison, correctional institution.

There is no strict correspondence between spheres of public life and social institutions. To fulfill the functions of each sphere of public life, it is necessary to combine the efforts of several main institutions.

If we combine such institutions as education (culture and science) and religion into one, then it will be possible to establish a one-to-one correspondence between the spheres of public life and the main social institutions:

1) economic sphere - production;
2) social sphere– family and marriage;
3) political sphere – state;
4) spiritual sphere – education and religion.

The role of society's institutions

The main role that institutions play in society is to reduce uncertainty by establishing a stable (though not necessarily efficient) structure of interaction between people. But the stability of institutions in no way contradicts the fact that they undergo changes over time.

All institutions develop - from traditional conventions, codes and norms of behavior to written law, customary law and contracts between individuals. (Thus, the set of choices available to us is constantly changing.) Changes at the periphery of an institutional system can be so slow and gradual that only historians can see them, although in the modern world the rapidity of institutional change is obvious.

A social institution is a relatively stable complex (system) of norms, rules, customs, traditions, principles, statuses and roles that regulate relations in various spheres of society. These are historically established stable forms of organizing joint activities and relationships between people in a certain sphere of life. For example, political institutions regulate relations in the political sphere, economic institutions regulate relations in the economic sphere, etc.

However, we must keep in mind that a social institution is a multifunctional system. Therefore, one institution can participate in the performance of several functions in different spheres of society and, conversely, several institutions can participate in the performance of one function. For example, the institution of marriage regulates marital relations, participates in the regulation of family relations and at the same time can contribute to the regulation of property relations, inheritance, etc.

Social institutions are formed and created to satisfy the most important individual and social needs and interests. They are the main regulatory mechanisms in all major spheres of human life. Institutions ensure stability and predictability of people's relationships and behavior, protect the rights and freedoms of citizens, protect society from disorganization, and form a social (institutional) system. The process of streamlining, standardizing and formalizing relationships is called institutionalization.

The institutionalization of relations in a certain sphere of life presupposes that the majority of members of society recognize the legitimacy (legitimacy) of a given social institution. In addition, institutionalization presupposes the organizational (legal) design of a social institution.

A social institution should be distinguished from specific organizations, social groups and individuals. The methods of interaction and behavior prescribed by institutions are impersonal. Social institutions (social systems) do not consist of specific people; people participate in them by occupying certain positions, acquiring corresponding social statuses and performing roles determined by their status. For example, the institution of family is not specific parents, children and other family members. This is a certain system of formal and informal norms and rules, social statuses and roles on the basis of which family relationships are built.

Any person involved in the activities of a particular institution is obliged to fulfill the relevant requirements. If a person does not properly fulfill the social functions and roles prescribed by the institution, then he may be deprived of his social status. For example, a parent may be deprived of his parental rights, an official may be deprived of his position, etc.

To perform its functions, a social institution forms (creates) the necessary institutions within the framework of which its activities are organized. In addition, each institute must have the necessary funds and resources. Thus, for the functioning of the educational institution, institutions such as schools, colleges, universities are created, the necessary buildings and structures are built; stand out cash and other resources.

The whole life of a person is organized, directed, supported and controlled by social institutions. For example, a child, as a rule, is born in one of the institutions of the health care institute - a maternity hospital; primary socialization takes place in the institution of the family; receives education and profession in various institutions of general and vocational education; the security of the individual is ensured by such institutions as the state, government, courts, police, etc.; health care and social protection institutions support health. At the same time, each institution in its field performs the functions of social control and forces people to obey accepted norms.

Family and marriage - the need for the reproduction of the human race and primary socialization;
- political (state, parties, etc.) - the need for security, order and control;
- economic (production, property, etc.) - the need to obtain means of subsistence;
- education - the need for socialization of younger generations, knowledge transfer, personnel training;
- culture - the need for reproduction of the sociocultural environment, for transmission to younger generations cultural norms and values;
- religion - the need to solve spiritual problems. The institutional system of society does not remain unchanged.

As society develops, new social needs arise and new institutions are formed to satisfy them. At the same time, “old” institutions are either reformed (adapted to new conditions) or disappear completely. For example, such social institutions as slavery, serfdom, and monarchy were eliminated in many countries. They were replaced by the institution of presidency, parliamentarism, and civil society. And such institutions as the institutions of family and marriage, religions have significantly transformed.

Institutions of spheres of society

Society is a part of the material world freed from nature, but closely connected with it, which includes ways of interaction between people and forms of their association. At the center of social development is a person with consciousness and will. Therefore, society is an artificial nature, built on top of natural nature as a result of the joint activities of individuals. Society is a system of joint activities of people.

The subsystems include the following areas of public life:

1. Economic - associated with the production and distribution of material goods to ensure the life of society;
2. Social - includes relationships between people in the field of providing for disabled members of society, healthcare, education;
3. Political - includes state, public and legal institutions for regulating society and managing it;
4. Spiritual - includes the means of development and satisfaction of non-material needs, as well as mechanisms for the formation and formation of social consciousness (religious, ideological, etc.).

Society is a concept that directly characterizes the organization of people’s lives in a country. Society is a collection of people (individuals) united by forms of economic and social activity that have historically developed in the course of providing the material and spiritual needs of people. In a narrower sense, society can be called a group of people united by the similarity of their origin and place in the system of social division of labor. Society is also called the unification of people to achieve certain goals.

The elements of society are social groups (estates, classes) and social institutions (state, church, family). The degree of difficulty in moving from one group to another, as well as the inequality of groups in the system of public institutions, is an indicator of the level of closedness of society. All the diversity of societies - large groups of people united on a different basis, existing now and those that have already disappeared - are divided into certain types.

There are many ways to classify societies. If religious is chosen as the main feature, then societies can be divided into Islamic, Confucian, Christian, etc. If the language is French-speaking, English-speaking, Russian-speaking and many others. If there is writing - unwritten (pre-literate) and written. Based on the methods of obtaining a livelihood, four main types of society are obtained: societies living by hunting and gathering; horticultural societies; agricultural societies; industrial (industrial) societies. In Marxist theory, the type of society is determined by the mode of production, that is, how economic resources are used and controlled. There were primitive communal, slaveholding, feudal and capitalist societies, and a transition to communist society was expected. A derivative of the Marxist one was the division into pre-industrial (traditional), industrial and post-industrial society, the transition of modern developed countries to which, as is generally believed, gradually occurs after the Second World War.

There is no consensus on the ways of further development of human society. It either develops progressively (progresses) (according to the theory of K. Marx), or moves towards its decline (regresses) (according to O. Spengler). According to modern evolutionist theory, society as a whole is progressively progressing. Within the framework of the cyclical theory, there is an opinion that the system of social development looks like a spiral.

The main spheres of society are: economic, social, political, spiritual. Each of them is respectively studied by such sciences as economics (general and social), sociology, political science, and philosophical disciplines. Let us try to briefly consider the main content of these areas.

Development of civil society institutions

The formation of a civil democratic society is impossible without the development of the public sector - an extensive network of non-governmental, non-profit associations of various types: veterans and youth, economic and creative, trade unions and interest clubs. Only a self-organized society can resist violence from narrowly self-serving economic, political and even criminal groups. Today Russia is at a crossroads. We have to make a choice - which path should we take next: the corporate-authoritarian one or the civil-legal one? How to resist those who are satisfied with the first path? The answer is clear - to create institutions for self-organization of citizens representing the interests of various groups of the population. Expand local self-government and the rights of public organizations.

In Russia there have always been inflated demands on power, from which it follows that power in Russia is the source of all troubles. Among the majority of our fellow citizens, there has always been an opinion that it is useless to influence the authorities. “Nothing depends on me, and I don’t want to participate in anything, because all the same, “they” will deceive.” Hence - indifference, apathy, cynicism. And on the other hand, the conviction that the authorities are obliged to do something for me. Hence the longing for the “iron hand”, for the person who will come and arrange everything. Today we need a completely different ideology of relations between the state and citizens. Citizens need to be helped to realize that no one will do anything for them, without their participation. They can only be deceived. It is necessary to educate the civic spirit so that people have a sense of respect for themselves, for their country, for their past and future, for their children, finally.

In accordance with the Constitution Russian Federation citizens have the right to associate on a non-profit basis in order to receive social services and develop self-organization of social systems. Modern Russian legislation defines the main form of realization of the right of citizens to association as non-profit organizations, which can be created in the form of public, charitable organizations, non-profit partnerships, autonomous organizations and institutions. The activities of public and charitable organizations are regulated by their own federal laws. Among public associations, religious associations, political parties, trade unions, youth and children's organizations have a special status.

The process of forming public associations in Russia, which today have become an integral component of political and public life, allows us to speak about the emergence of the foundations of civil society in the country. Government authorities and the public recognize the possibility of promising cooperation in terms of attracting public organizations that represent socially significant projects and programs in solving the problems facing the region. The scale of these tasks requires the creation of interaction mechanisms that will allow non-profit organizations and authorities to establish mutually beneficial and equal partnerships.

Thus, in solving the key tasks of forming civil society and the most important social problems, non-governmental non-profit organizations, which form the so-called Third Sector, will play an increasingly significant role. In the following, to avoid terminological confusion, we will use the term independent non-profit organizations to refer to the organizations that make up the Third Sector.

Why Third Sector? The thing is that in countries where private property is recognized and a market economy exists or is being formed, the entire set of legal entities is usually divided into three sectors.

The first sector unites government and municipal organizations, that is, organizations whose property is state or municipal property.

The second sector is private commercial organizations, that is, organizations that pursue profit as the main goal of their activities, and their property is not in state or municipal ownership.

The third sector is private non-profit organizations. The first distinguishing feature of these organizations is that they do not have profit as the main goal of their activities and do not distribute the profits among their participants. The second distinctive feature is that the property of these organizations is not in state or municipal ownership.

Often these three sectors are referred to as government, for-profit, and non-profit, respectively. The use of these names, of course, is quite acceptable, but they are more conventional. It should be borne in mind that Russian legislation divides the entire set of legal entities into two large classes: commercial and non-profit organizations. Among those and others there may be state, municipal and private. That is, many commercial organizations wider than the Second Sector, and many non-profit organizations - correspondingly wider than the Third Sector.

Non-profit organizations can exist in different organizational and legal forms. It could be consumer cooperative, public or religious organization (association), foundation, institution, autonomous non-profit organization and others. In turn, institutions can be state, municipal and private. State and municipal institutions belong to the first of the sectors highlighted above. But private institutions, that is, institutions whose property is not in state or municipal ownership, but belongs to citizens or legal entities, and other forms of non-profit organizations constitute the Third Sector.

The reasons hindering the development of the “third sector” include the following:

Imperfection regulatory framework regulating the interaction of government bodies and public associations;
- lack of a mechanism for cooperation between three sectors of society, a system in organizing financial assistance, preferential taxation. The traditions of charity are undeveloped, the middle class is absent, financial base activities of independent non-profit organizations;
- insufficient awareness of development programs, the mechanism of their formation, and the place of public associations in their implementation;
poor awareness of the population about the activities of public organizations;
- insufficient professionalism in the activities of public associations;
- insufficiency of necessary organizational and methodological assistance from authorities.

The Federal Law “On Non-Profit Organizations” provides for the possibility of support of independent non-profit organizations by state authorities and local governments. Such support and cooperation is in the fundamental interests of both sides.

For what reasons are the state and local governments interested in interacting with the third sector?

Firstly, most state non-profit organizations were created to solve the same problems that state and municipal authorities deal with on a daily basis. This is caring for low-income, sick, socially disadvantaged citizens, promoting the upbringing and education of children and adolescents, preserving and developing culture, real protection of rights and freedoms guaranteed by the Constitution of the Russian Federation, and much more that cannot be ensured in purely commercial, market basis. The existence of the third sector is primarily due to the fact that the most active members of society strive to contribute to the solution of the problems facing it, not only by fulfilling the direct duties assigned by the state to all citizens, but also by doing something “beyond their duties”, voluntarily. In this regard, the need to unite and coordinate efforts is obvious.

Secondly, in some cases the third sector operates more successfully and more economically than government agencies. This is convincingly shown by studies conducted in many countries. As a result, it is often more profitable for the state to transfer funds to independent non-profit organizations, of course, in exchange for clear, specific and controllable obligations on their part, than to create additional organizations itself.

Thus, in the United States in the 80s, more than a third of all spending on socio-cultural needs was allocated to the third sector, including more than half of all federal spending on social welfare, culture, science and humanitarian purposes. Specific analysis shows that the benefits budget financing independent non-profit organizations are especially large when at least one of the following two conditions is present: it is possible to involve volunteers in the work and the task being solved is not entirely standard; an unconventional approach to a specific category of service recipients and deep individualization of activities are required.

So, cooperation between the state and local governments with third sector organizations can serve as an important factor in increasing the efficiency of using funds, especially allocated to social needs.

Thirdly, the strengthening of a democratic state and the development of local self-government in itself crucially depends on the formation of a modern civil society. It's about about various forms of civilized interaction of citizens, their voluntary participation in public affairs. It is the third sector organizations that act as the “supporting structures” of civil society. The closer and more fruitful the state’s contacts with this sector, the better the mutual understanding between the authorities and society and the less likely their mutual alienation.

It is natural that in the “Program of Social Reforms in the Russian Federation”, among the priority measures was “determining the order of interaction in the field of social policy between authorities, public and commercial organizations."

At the same time, the third sector needs moral and material support from the state and local governments. A fairly typical example: volunteers are ready to combine efforts and funds to help some category of people in need, but it is difficult for them to pay the rent of the premises necessary for work at the rates established for commercial organizations, and to pay taxes. Providing them with benefits can ensure the achievement of a goal that would otherwise require spending more money from the regional or city budget.

No less important is the interest of third sector organizations in effective control by state and municipal authorities. Such control guarantees the absence of abuses that impede the performance of the functions undertaken by non-profit organizations and reduce their prestige.

The activities of most non-profit, including public and charitable organizations are aimed at solving pressing problems of a particular locality or region as a whole. Regional and local branches of public organizations operating throughout the Russian Federation also make a significant contribution to solving these problems. Experience shows that the third sector develops more successfully where the representative and executive bodies of the constituent entities of the Federation and local government bodies guide and stimulate non-profit organizations, while at the same time preventing unjustified interference in their activities.

In the current conditions, there is an objective need to improve the system of relationships “regional authorities - public sector - commercial sector”, to form new approaches to cooperation between the public and public sectors, and to develop mechanisms for such cooperation.

We believe that the time has come for us to think together about developing a concept for a social development program that would include:

Determination of the conceptual foundations, principles, policies of executive authorities on which interaction with public associations is based;
- improvement of existing and development of new forms of social partnership, mutual cooperation of government bodies and non-governmental associations of citizens;
- development of effective mechanisms for government authorities to support the activities of public associations in their implementation of socially significant programs;
- creation of institutions for interaction (infrastructure) between government bodies and public associations.

The implementation of such a program could contribute to the democratization of power, the formation and strengthening of civil society institutions, expanding their participation in governance, developing the consciousness and self-awareness of citizens, increasing their civic activity and responsibility for solving socio-economic problems.

However, public organizations still have a lot to learn in this regard. You must be able to recognize pressing social needs, be able to propose real projects to solve these problems, formalize them into a good business plan, etc. That is, you need to study.

Historian Ivan Ilyin once said: “Russia is not human dust and not chaos. It is, first of all, a great people who have not squandered their strength and have not despaired of their calling. This people is hungry for free order and peaceful labor, for property and for national culture. Don’t bury him prematurely!” Yes, it will be difficult for us. And only by joining forces can we prove to the whole world what the Russian spirit and strength mean. I am convinced: the 21st century belongs to Russia. But it will not be revolutions and uprisings that will shake the planet, but our achievements.”

Structure of society's institutions

A social institution is a relatively stable complex (system) of norms, rules, customs, traditions, principles, statuses and roles that regulate relations in various spheres of society. For example, political institutions regulate relations in the political sphere, economic ones - in economic sphere etc.

However, we must keep in mind that a social institution is a multifunctional system. Therefore, one institution can participate in the performance of several functions in different spheres of society, and vice versa, several institutions can participate in the performance of one function. For example, the institution of marriage regulates marital relations, participates in the regulation of family relations and at the same time can contribute to the regulation of property relations, inheritance, etc.

Social institutions are formed and created to satisfy the most important individual and social needs and interests. They are the main regulatory mechanisms in all major spheres of human life. Institutions ensure stability and predictability of people's relationships and behavior, protect the rights and freedoms of citizens, protect society from disorganization, and form a social system.

A social institution should be distinguished from specific organizations, social groups and individuals. The methods of interaction and behavior prescribed by institutions are impersonal. For example, the institution of family is not specific parents, children and other family members, but a certain system of formal and informal norms and rules, social statuses and roles on the basis of which family relationships are built. Therefore, any person involved in the activities of a particular institution must fulfill the relevant requirements. If a person does not properly fulfill the social role prescribed by the institution, then he may be deprived of the status he occupies (a parent may be deprived of his parental rights, an official may be deprived of his position, etc.).

To perform its functions, a social institution forms (creates) the necessary institutions within the framework of which its activities are organized. In addition, each institute must have the necessary funds and resources.

For example, for the functioning of an educational institution, institutions such as schools, colleges, universities are created, the necessary buildings and structures are built, funds and other resources are allocated.

The whole life of a person is organized, directed, supported and controlled by social institutions. Thus, a child, as a rule, is born in one of the institutions of the health care institute - a maternity hospital, undergoes primary socialization in the family institute, receives education and a profession in various institutions of general and vocational education institutes; the security of the individual is ensured by such institutions as the state, government, courts, police, etc.; health care and social protection institutions support health. At the same time, each institution in its field performs the functions of social control and forces people to obey accepted norms.

The main social institutions in society are:

Institutions of family and marriage - the need for the reproduction of the human race and primary socialization;
political institutions (state, parties, etc.) - needs for security, order and governance;
economic institutions (production, property, etc.) - the need to obtain means of subsistence;
educational institutions - needs for socialization of younger generations, knowledge transfer, personnel training;
cultural institutions - the need for the reproduction of the sociocultural environment, for the transmission of cultural norms and values ​​to younger generations;
institutions of religion - needs for solving spiritual problems.

The institutional system of society does not remain unchanged. As society develops, new social needs arise and new institutions are formed to satisfy them. At the same time, “old” institutions are either reformed (adapted to new conditions) or disappear. For example, such social institutions as the institution of slavery, the institution of serfdom, and the institution of monarchy were eliminated in many countries. They were replaced by the institution of the presidency, the institution of parliamentarism, the institutions of civil society, and such institutions as the institutions of family and marriage, and the institutions of religion were significantly transformed.

Society and legal institutions

Society is a collection of individuals and social groups and classes and the relationships that develop between them. Social groups are a collection of individuals that have their own interests and, through their activities, influence the behavior of other people. Social groups should not include associations of persons identified by gender, age, eye color, etc.

Social groups can be large or small, temporary or permanent, formal or informal. Informal groups are characterized by personal, informal connections (family, tourist group, group of neighbors, etc.). Formal groups are based not on personal, but on formal connections. Their members may not even know each other (parties, joint stock companies etc.).

A variety of relationships develop between individuals, groups and classes. The leading place in these relations belongs to production, economic relations (relations of property, distribution of material goods, relations arising from the social division of labor), which form the basis of all other social relations: political, moral, etc. Each society is associated with a certain the territory in which it lives and functions.

In order to streamline relations in society, manage public affairs, processes, resolve various kinds of conflicts, maintain order, achieve certain goals of society or individual social groups in society, various types of social institutions spontaneously develop or are consciously created. An institute is a certain entity (institution, organization, etc.) created to carry out certain tasks. This is a very broad concept. Social institutions are the state and law in general, morality and customs as social regulators, political parties, public associations, church, family, etc. At the same time, individual bodies of the state or components of law are also called institutions, for example, the institution of the presidency, the institution of the constitutional court, the institution of necessary defense in criminal law, the institution of criminal liability in civil law etc.

Along with the concept of society in science there is the concept of civil society. Civil society as a phenomenon is considered in comparison with the state. Schematically, somewhat simplified, civil society can be considered as a sphere outside the state itself. Civil society is a system of subjects and relations, to a certain extent independent of the state, a sphere dominated by private interest, private property, economically independent, free, legally equal subjects. Civil society is the “kingdom of economic relations” (K. Marx). These relations constitute the backbone, the basis of civil society, and civil society is the socio-economic basis of the state.

Civil society consists of institutions such as the family, church, media independent of the state, business structures, political parties, trade unions and other public associations, etc.

Institute of Society Management

Each institution performs its own characteristic social function. The totality of these social functions adds up to the general social functions of social institutions as certain types of social system. These functions are very diverse.

Sociologists of different directions tried to somehow classify them, present them in the form of a certain ordered system. The most complete and interesting classification was presented by the so-called “institutional school”.

Representatives of the institutional school in sociology (S. Lipset, D. Landberg, etc.) identified four main functions of social institutions:

1) Reproduction of members of society. The main institution performing this function is the family, but other social institutions, such as the state, are also involved.
2) Socialization - the transfer by individuals of patterns of behavior and methods of activity established in a given society - institutions of family, education, religion, etc.
3) Production and distribution. Provided by economic and social institutions of management and control - authorities. The functions of management and control are carried out through a system of social norms and regulations that implement the corresponding types of behavior: moral and legal norms, customs, administrative decisions, etc. Social institutions manage the behavior of the individual through a system of rewards and sanctions.

Conditions of their existence and problems of development of civil society institutions. If the main element of civil society is the individual, then its supporting structures are all those social institutions, organizations and groups that are designed to promote the full realization of the individual, his interests, goals, and aspirations. The ideas of individual freedom and private property underlie the concept of civil society.

A significant place in civil society is occupied by interest groups, which are various kinds of organizations or associations of workers, farmers, entrepreneurs, representatives of various professions (doctors, lawyers, engineers, teachers, lecturers, scientists), church, women's, youth and other public organizations united community of interests.

Interest groups and organizations provide the individual with the opportunity to realize his abilities. They reflect the diversity of economic, ethnic, religious, regional, demographic, professional and other interests of people.

Some non-governmental associations and organizations have realized the problem of building a civil society and the need to solve it, ahead of the state (authority). Political programs, slogans, scientific and journalistic works on the problems of civil society began to appear. However, a huge number of existing public groups are not ready today to take a position of self-organization and self-government. In order for various communities to try to take a similar position, special work must be carried out with them.

Interaction with civil society institutions

In order for civil society to form and effectively defend its interests, it is necessary to create favorable conditions for the activities of non-profit organizations.

Last time Special attention focuses on the interaction of authorities with various institutions of civil society, public organizations, or, as they are commonly called, the “third sector,” including interaction at the federal, regional and municipal levels.

An example of the active joint work of government bodies and civil society institutions at the federal level is the creation of the Public Chamber of the Russian Federation, the All-Russian Popular Front, and Public Councils under the Head of State, through which close interaction with the public is carried out.

One of the forms of government openness to interaction with civil society institutions is the Decree of the President of the Russian Federation on the formation of a working group to prepare proposals for the formation of an “open government” system in the Russian Federation, one of the goals of which is to analyze the effectiveness of interaction between bodies executive power with social movements and associations, preparation of proposals for the creation of a modern system of interaction between authorities and social movements at the stages of decision-making.

Civil society operates most effectively at the regional level. It is at the regional level that citizens solve pressing problems of organizing their living space. Here relations between regional and municipal authorities and citizens are developed.

The current state of the third sector has a number of features:

Has a weak administrative and legal resource, which affects the decision-making process;
- has the support of citizens, but does not have human resources;
- there is great heterogeneity of political institutions, which have serious differences in social orientation, economic development, interaction with stakeholders, which makes it difficult to develop a certain position and, accordingly, make decisions.

There was a formalization of relations both at the federal and regional levels. An example of this can be the following facts.

During these years, federal laws and programs were adopted to support the development of non-profit organizations and support for socially oriented NPOs.

Mechanisms for taking into account citizens’ opinions at regional levels were created:

Public Chambers of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, municipalities;
- Public advisory councils under ministries and departments;
- trustee, expert councils and numerous working groups.

There is an organization of citizens at their place of residence, there is a practice of organizing territorial public self-governments (TPS) and homeowners' associations.

Local authorities are the link that ensures the implementation of any strategy of the federal and regional authorities, bringing it to the people.

Municipal leaders who are well aware of the characteristics and problems of the territory and its people are able to offer the most effective tactics for implementing strategies and projects developed at the federal level. Local governments can provide continuous and reliable feedback to state leaders, providing information on the progress of the most important social tasks in the localities, on the attitude of citizens to various initiatives of the authorities, and, if necessary, proposals for adjustments decisions taken.

Currently, local government resources are underutilized. Effective work Local authorities are hampered by a number of factors, the most important of which is the weak resource base of local governments, and primarily the low level of local budgets’ own revenues.

No less acute is the problem of low social activity of citizens who withdraw from participation in solving issues of local importance. One of the reasons is the formed socio-psychological attitudes of citizens, consisting of total dependence on the authorities, inability and unwillingness to take responsibility for solving the problems of their home, street, settlement, as well as low legal culture and lack of awareness. Most of the population is poorly aware of the powers and responsibilities of local authorities, their own rights and opportunities to influence the situation on a particular issue. Activity in participation in issues of local importance is determined by the level of education, legal literacy, and desire to take part in solving the identified issues.

As a result of interaction between authorities and public representatives on the part of citizens, the following factors occur:

Solving individual problems;
- disbelief and lack of understanding of how decisions can be influenced;
- poor legal literacy, low level of awareness in resolving issues of local importance.

From public associations:

Instability of funding sources;
- little experience in defending one’s own interests;
- insufficient professionalism, as well as the level of expert assessment in the organization itself.

For civil society, the problems of self-organization, development of public control, building dialogue and interaction with authorities are relevant.

Only through the joint efforts of federal, regional, local authorities and civil society institutions is it possible to effectively organize work on the interaction of government bodies and public institutions to solve problems in terms of improving the quality of life of the population.

Local civil society institutions

According to the Constitution of the Russian Federation, local government bodies are not included in the system of state authorities (Article 12). Local self-government in the Russian Federation ensures that the population independently resolves issues of local importance, ownership, use and disposal of municipal property. Local self-government is exercised by citizens through referendums, elections, and other forms of direct expression of will, through elected and other local government bodies (Article 130). The structure of local government bodies is determined by the population independently (Article 131). These provisions, taking into account the practice of implementing constitutional norms on local self-government, are reflected in Federal law No. 131-F3 "About general principles organizations of local self-government in the Russian Federation", which specifies a number of positions on organizing the activities of local government bodies and the population itself in the system of organizational units determined according to the settlement principle.

This made it possible to bring the system of local self-government closer to the population and expand the forms of its independent and responsible solution to a number of problems that are currently assigned to this level of government, carried out “independently and under its own responsibility.” Without considering the entire range of issues related to the formation of local self-government on the principles provided for by the Constitution of the Russian Federation and the updated law on local self-government, we will focus only on one thesis we propose. This is the problem of considering the system of local self-government as an institution of civil society and its role in information processes.

Local self-government bodies are not part of the system of state authorities, but are a very influential institution of public power, working in close contact and interaction with government bodies, therefore there is every reason to consider local self-government as a system of representation and implementation of the interests of the population, as the most important component of national interests, interests of civil society.

The process of establishing a system of local self-government on new principles, when the number of local government bodies has increased several times, and citizens themselves must get used to the new conditions for demonstrating their independence and responsibility within the limits that are currently available to their own decision, is far from completed. It is all the more important to look at this system of population organization as an institution of civil society. We can say that this is a specific feature of the Russian process of development of civil society.

Identifying the positions, methods and forms of manifestation of the initiative of the citizens themselves, who must overcome the psychological barrier - placing and expecting everything from the state administrative apparatus - is a very difficult task. In this regard, outdated ideas about what is proper, possible and obligatory must be broken both among officials of state bodies at the federal and regional levels, and in the apparatus of local governments, as well as among citizens. The study of this process requires special organizational and financial support, restructuring of the work of the media, the entire front information work.

But it is already necessary to note that the beginnings of a completely new concept of “doping” are growing in society. In addition to attracting financial resources from different recipients of the business, sprouts of other crops appear. People themselves begin to look for worthy persons who can not only represent their interests, but also organize them for good deeds. The election of the head of the municipality of a village in the Stavropol Territory of the priest of the local church, which he restored together with the population, is still an odious fact, but significant. “Turn a village into a temple” is the motto of voters. Recently, there has been a noticeable turn of television and radio towards covering positive phenomena in society and supporting good endeavors.

Let us turn to the analysis of the content of the special issue of the Izvestia newspaper supplement. The reason for such attention to the topic of local self-government was the adoption by the Moscow City Duma of a law expanding the rights of local self-government in this subject of the Russian Federation. According to Moscow City Law No. 50 “On the procedure for vesting local governments of intra-city municipalities in the city of Moscow with certain powers of the city of Moscow (state powers)”, district municipal assemblies elected by Muscovites got the chance to prove to their voters that they, i.e. voters already have a mechanism for conversation and interaction with representatives of public authorities, which at the most primary level makes it possible to hear them and respond to their needs. An Izvestia correspondent, in a conversation with the head of the Institute of Urban Economics N. Kosareva, records the following position: “The right to local self-government is as important as the right to freedom of speech.” It is also said that “we still don’t know how to use all this very well. This is an institution “for growth”. It gives much more than society is now able to extract from it.” Professor of Moscow architectural institute, member of the Public Chamber of the Russian Federation V. Glazychev, as if supporting this idea, states: “People must believe that they can control “their” territory.”

In addition to issues of guardianship and trusteeship, the area of ​​jurisdiction of local self-government gradually includes such issues as: organization of sports and cultural activities (clubs, sections, various leisure institutions); activities of commissions on juvenile affairs; organization of communities created on the basis of a house or microdistrict. At first glance, this is not much, but all these are channels of information interaction. It is difficult to overcome the belief that the public cannot independently solve problems important for the territory, monitor compliance with the legality of the activities of government bodies and structures of large and even medium-sized businesses. These sentiments are seriously overcome by the fact that the Moscow Government is increasingly appealing to public opinion and involving local government structures in solving the problems of the city and its individual territories.

Two factors began to strongly influence the civil and legal status of local government in the Russian Federation. This is an update of the structures and methods of the state and local government system, which is assumed by state policy for the near future, and a decision on the fate of the local press and local media.

The press also touches on such aspects of civil society problems as the interaction of the population and municipalities with business - small and medium-sized enterprises. Using materials from the all-Russian public organization small and medium-sized enterprises "OPORA Rossii" and materials of the All-Russian Center for the Study of Public Opinion (VTsIOM), the newspaper states that the problems of small businesses have not decreased, and the main obstacle to its development remains administrative barriers.

It should be noted that in general the problem legal regulation information interaction with citizens and various structures civil society leaves much to be desired. And this is an argument to disagree with forecasts regarding the fate of local public media. In the bills on amendments to the law on the media, there were loud arguments to reduce the media associated with local governments, the offices of mayors and governors. It is precisely these connections that can be effectively implemented without the intervention of an irresistible bureaucracy, based on the elements of " e-government", provided that citizens master information literacy. Let us note that the intentions to create a public television channel, in contrast to state channels, have not yet been successful due to the lack of interest of private organizations in its financing and maintenance.

Jerk in information support The interaction of local and regional government with the population is ensured by the large-scale connection of information monitoring systems for the progress of election campaigns and the transfer of these communication and information systems to serve territorial problems of government and civil structures throughout the Russian Federation.

It is possible and necessary to study the practice of interaction between the processes of formation of the information and civil society, analyze it for each institution and structure of civil society. A lot of work is being done in this direction. However, this aspect of the issue attracts very little attention from the legislator. Most regulations, including laws, do not pay attention to the issue of information communication with civil society institutions. The exception is the appeal to the topic of media accreditation, organization of websites, portals, and this is already a good sign of strengthening communication with the population and its public associations.

It is important to organize constant monitoring, trace and analyze how the characteristics of society interact according to the following parameters: democratic, social, legal, informational, civil - in information sphere. The work of the magazine "Information Resources of Russia", which specifically covers issues of the connection between civil society and information, deserves support. Among other things, the following questions were clarified: how are civil society and the rule of law related? Can civil society be created in the absence of the rule of law? Which civil society institutions are already visible? What parties, associations, unions or foundations determine the state of civil society? What is the role of human rights organizations? Is the opinion about the imitation of democratic forms in the judicial system fair? What are the priorities for creating a civil society? Do the media justify their purpose? How can you evaluate the performance of the executive branch? What other sources of information are important for the development of civil society? These issues are also paid attention to by such large publications as “Expert”, “Vlast”, “Itogi”, etc.

The range of questions and variety of answers allows us to summarize that local government structures as essential element civil society are of great importance in the development of the information society. This is both a source of requests to ICT information structures and a user of the entire information environment from print, television, telephony to the Internet.

Economic institutions of society

An economic institution is a historically established mechanism that regulates the activities of people (by distributing and assigning to them certain socially useful roles: consumer, broker, entrepreneur, etc.), monitoring their compliance with certain norms, traditions, rules and laws, and, finally, allowing to satisfy maximum needs with minimal use of scarce resources.

Money is one of the most important economic institutions of society. This is a historically established spontaneous mechanism for regulating relationships between people. When they are not there, relationships have to be sorted out by force, pressure, authority, orders and other similar forceful methods. But when they exist, then everything turns out decently and nobly: I hand over my laundry to the laundry and pay for the services the money for which I previously “toiled” at the enterprise.

It is unlikely that anyone will doubt that the long history of money is associated with traditions, customs, norms and other social attributes attributed to a social institution. And there is no need to talk about how skillfully and wisely they control our actions (especially when there is not enough of them for everything), or that only they are able to satisfy maximum needs with a minimum of costs for their production. What is the cost of producing paper or metal money? How many times do they turn around, bringing untold benefits to the state? How many people are made happy or unhappy?

Thus, money is a social institution that increases wealth by lowering the costs of exchange and promoting greater specialization in accordance with people's comparative advantage.

Banks are another economic institution of society that operates in the sphere of exchange. The main function of banks is to ensure the safety of deposits, funds and to be a source of loans.

Banks as financial intermediaries transfer money from the depositor to the borrower, i.e. from those who want to leave money for the future to those who want to use it in the present. People place their savings in the bank because they know that this money will be returned upon their first request, since banks ensure the physical safety of money from fire and robbery and provide insurance on deposits.

The activities of banks are vital for the normal functioning of the economy. Trade loans allow firms to pay current bills and finance expenses. Loans to the population allow citizens to purchase goods now, paying for them from future earnings.

Banks concentrate a significant part of the free capital available in the country (passive operations) and transfer them into the hands of entrepreneurs who need to expand their turnover (active operations).

Banks are in the business of buying and selling shares. They undertake the placement of shares of newly emerging industrial enterprises, as well as the purchase of shares for those entrepreneurs who would like to become their owners.

The stock market game of bearishness and appreciation for banks is a way to concentrate securities and shares. Banks are not limited to intermediation; they themselves own industrial enterprises or take part in one way or another. Thus, before the revolution of 1917, the overwhelming majority of votes at general meetings of Russian metallurgical plants belonged to several commercial banks; their portfolio contained shares of dozens of industrial enterprises, which in this way became the property of banks. The capital invested by banks in shares of industrial enterprises is called financial capital. It puts industry under the complete subordination of banks.

Banks live a busy and hectic life: they merge and enlarge, go bankrupt and are absorbed, expand (create branches), enter the international arena, their accounts can be seized, the state can appoint a temporary administration that takes over all management. Of all the behavioral models, banks prefer mergers. They compete less with each other than firms and enterprises. When penetrating production, banks are interested in ensuring that there is no competition between homogeneous industrial enterprises that they own. They strive to merge homogeneous enterprises that previously belonged to different owners into an economic whole. In this way, banks support the desire of industry to organize syndicates and trusts.

A commercial institution is any establishment where goods are bought and sold. This is a store, a wholesale market, an exchange, a purchasing base, etc. They operate in the sphere of economic exchange.

Most goods are exchanged through direct contacts between the seller and the buyer, and some of them are exchanged only indirectly - through special institutions called exchange institutions. Their role in society is enormous. They stabilize prices and regulate the flow of goods, avoiding chaos and confusion. The goods can be labor, land and even air. In short, everything that is bought and sold. A product, not money, satisfies human needs for food, housing, health, etc. Money is just an intermediary, a means that simplifies the movement of goods around the world.

It is necessary to distinguish between goods and services. Goods are things that are produced: food, clothing, houses, cars, etc. Goods can also be called products or commodities.

Services are not products, although many objects are used in their provision, say, a brush, a vacuum cleaner, washing powder. Showing a film is providing a service to the public. And making a film is making a product. Moviegoers, when they go home, do not take anything material with them, although they have a lot of emotional impressions.

We need to distinguish between two close concepts - buyer and consumer. They buy goods and consume both goods and services. But they don’t buy services. Therefore, the concept of “consumer” is somewhat broader than the concept of buyer. Although the difference between them has become so blurred that they are used as synonyms.

There is another difference between services and goods. Products and consumer goods together constitute the welfare of society, or national wealth. But the totality of services cannot be called welfare or wealth. They perform a different function - they create a comfortable living environment. Shine shoes, wash clothes, bring mail, etc. - this is something without which it is impossible to imagine civilization and a civilized society. In a primitive society the list of services is very limited. Nomads, they say, do not wash for weeks, if not months, but a modern city dweller sometimes does it twice a day.

The result of the population's accumulative activity is wealth. It must be understood as a set of goods and the amount of money expressing them, which can be administered by an individual family or an entire state.

Wealth belongs to the sphere of accumulation. The main economic institutions in the sphere of accumulation are commercial and state banks, but they cannot be attributed only to this sphere; they act as institutions of both the sphere of accumulation and exchange at the same time.

Goods, money and services express the degree of development of society, its prosperity. Modern powers - developed capitalist countries such as the USA, Germany or Japan - have proportionately developed areas of goods and services. They can still be ranked among the richest societies. In poor countries (Bangladesh, Mauritania, Ethiopia) the service sector is very narrow. People here barely meet basic needs and cannot even dream of expensive medical care.

Societies that have accumulated great wealth develop faster than those that have not. It follows that as technical progress Rich countries are getting richer, and poor countries are getting poorer relative to them. In other words, the gap between poor countries and rich ones is widening.

A society that provides its citizens with maximum freedom of economic enterprise tends to end up with the maximum number of rich or prosperous people. This is the United States. A society that restricts economic freedom gets the fewest rich people. These are the ancient eastern empires. The Soviet Union occupied an intermediate position on this scale.

There is no such society in which all methods of enrichment would be exhausted. There are always new opportunities. Those who were the first to come up with an original method of enrichment often get rich there. A striking example is the story of one American who became a millionaire literally from garbage. He was the first to realize that a city landfill could generate huge profits if used correctly. Having taken out a loan of several hundred thousand dollars from a city bank on the advice of the mayor's office, which was interested in the original project of destroying stinking garbage dumps around the city, the enterprising American sanitized and then paved one of them. On the resulting territory, he built a supermarket, where, unlike cramped city shops, it was possible to drive up by car. The Americans liked the idea. Soon the entrepreneur created a wide network of supermarkets throughout the country.

The market is one of the most important economic institutions of society, and not only the market for goods and services, but work force. According to Professor D. Card from Princeton University, workers consider the labor market to be both a social institution and an economic one. When higher wages are offered, people look for work; Having received it, they think more about the fair nature of remuneration, which affects its performance.

Markets specialize in what they sell depending on what the sellers offer. For example, a place where the poorest segments of the population sell used things - old watches, used clothes, all kinds of nails, nuts, locks, etc., is called a flea market, or also a bazaar. Places where sellers, usually reputable companies, display newly introduced samples of products and, by advertising them, encourage potential buyers to enter into deals with them for large quantities of goods, are called fairs and sales exhibitions. A place where city residents can purchase small quantities of essential goods - cereals, oil, vegetables, meat and fish products, at prices lower than in stores, is called wholesale markets.

The stock exchange is one of the most important economic institutions that satisfies the fundamental need for profit and gambling for increases and decreases. Usually this is a spacious building equipped with advanced equipment, where the whole day in a strange language for the uninitiated, in which slang and gestures alternate, trade is underway companies, consignments of goods, currencies, minerals, shares and even labor force.

Exchange is a form of regularly operating wholesale market. Depending on the subject of the transaction, there are:

Commodity exchange, where goods are sold according to standards and samples;
- a stock exchange where they buy and sell securities of their own and foreign companies;
- a currency exchange designed to determine the value of domestic currency in relation to foreign currency on a daily basis, for example, to determine the exchange rate of the ruble to the dollar;
- a labor exchange that tries to find a possible place of work for the unemployed, i.e. employ them.

The commodity exchange concentrates wholesale turnover on mass, mainly raw materials and food products (non-ferrous metals, grain, cotton, sugar, etc.). Among them, a distinction is made between universal and specialized (for individual goods or groups of goods) commodity exchanges.

The economic institutions of society also include industrial production, goods market, labor market, labor market, exchange and trade, property, etc.

Political institutions of civil society

In modern social life, they are of great importance various shapes associations of citizens - their conscious, purposeful institutionalization, that is, transformation into certain organizational entities.

Social science has identified two main public non-commercial phenomena that are in constant interaction, interpenetration, and sometimes confrontation. We are talking about the coexistence of the state and civil society.

We will consider the concept of the state in detail in one of the following sections. As for civil society, there are quite a few definitions of this phenomenon. For example, civil society is a cross-section of social life, which is determined by the activities and relationships of people as sovereign, proactive and self-organized citizens (this is the sphere of independent socially significant actions of citizens).

There are also other definitions, for example, civil society is a category that simultaneously describes and anticipates a complex and dynamic ensemble of legally protected non-governmental institutions, which tend to be non-violent, self-organized and self-reflexive and which are in constant tension with each other and with the institutions of state power ; the latter “formulate”, limit and make possible their activities.

Thus, civil society can be considered a collection of individuals and their interaction, as well as their socially significant activities, including through various organizational forms.

Civil society has a number of characteristics, including:

The dismemberment of a social whole into parts, relationships, activities that have a logic autonomous from the whole;
- an individual striving to become an individual, as a special unit of society and one of its subjects; a sovereign individual in the role of the primary or basic cell of society as a whole and its various formations;
- conditions created in society for the manifestation, formation and institutionalization of an individual’s initiative - civil initiative.

This citizen initiative is formalized through the creation of various civil society institutions.

Civil society institutions are areas of citizen activity implemented through various organizational forms (organizations) aimed at solving socially significant problems.

The following institutions are considered to be elements of civil society:

1. Individual citizens and their informal groups;
2. Local governments;
3. Different types of non-profit organizations:
- public and other non-governmental organizations,
- mass media,
- educational establishments,
- church,
- trade unions and associations,
- various institutions of public cooperation,
- business associations,
- charity organisations,
- political organizations,
- cultural organizations, including national-cultural autonomies.

Thus, three main groups of civil society institutions can be formed.

The role of certain groups of citizens in social activities certainly high, but this topic is not key in this work. Organizational aspects The formation and activities of local government bodies interest us on the pages of this book only as bearers of public power at the local (municipal) level.

As for the various types of non-profit organizations, they are widely represented in modern public life in Russia in the most various industries and areas of activity of citizens. We will consider the content and classification of non-profit organizations below.

From the essence and manifestations of civil society arise its main social functions, which are:

Creating an environment where public initiative of citizens is formed;
- integration of society based on convergence of interests and intensification of activities;
- creation and consolidation of norms and values ​​in society;
- reducing social and other conflicts to civilized dialogue;
- impact on state institutions of power and forms of interaction with them;
- participation in the organization and conduct of public examinations;
- control over the activities of the executive branch and elected governing bodies;
- development of culture;
- creation of new knowledge;
- protection of the rights and interests of citizens;
- integration into the international humanitarian space;
- educational, outreach and consolidating role, etc.

The set of civil society institutions, primarily implemented through non-profit organizations, is called the “third sector”, that is, an institutionalized part of public activity that is distinct from business and the public sector.

The “third sector” of public activity is associations of citizens (civil society institutions), formed as a result of their initiative to achieve socially significant non-profit goals, that is, the entire set of non-governmental and non-profit organizations.

With the development of democracy and the establishment of traditions of free will and civil initiative in Russia, the “third sector” became a real factor in the development modern society and an equal partner of the state and other institutions in the process of realizing the interests of citizens.

We can no longer imagine modern existence without a large number of both public and private media, without consumer protection societies, without professional associations and charitable societies.

Thus, we can say with confidence that the institutions of civil society and the “third sector” are the most important realities of today, without which the further development of Russia is unthinkable.

Institutions of Russian society

Family as a social institution

A.G. Kharchev defines a family as an association of people based on marriage and consanguinity, connected by a common life and mutual responsibility. The initial basis of family relationships is marriage. Marriage is a historically changing social form relationship between a woman and a man, through which society regulates and sanctions their sexual life and establishes their marital and kinship rights and obligations. But the family, as a rule, represents a more complex system of relationships than marriage, since it can unite not only spouses, but also their children, as well as other relatives. Therefore, the family should be considered not just as a marriage group, but as a social institution, that is, a system of connections, interactions and relationships of individuals that perform the functions of reproduction of the human race and regulate all connections, interactions and relationships on the basis of certain values ​​and norms, subject to extensive social control through a system of positive and negative sanctions.

The family as a social institution goes through a number of stages, the sequence of which develops into a family cycle or life cycle families.

Researchers identify a different number of phases of this cycle, but the main ones are the following:

1) entering into a first marriage - forming a family;
2) the beginning of childbearing - the birth of the first child;
3) the end of childbearing - the birth of the last child;
4) “empty nest” - marriage and separation of the last child from the family;
5) cessation of the existence of a family - the death of one of the spouses.

The main, first function of the family, as follows from A.G. Kharchev’s definition, is reproductive, that is, the biological reproduction of the population in a social sense and satisfying the need for children in a personal sense.

Along with this main function, the family performs a number of other important social functions:

A) Educational - socialization of the younger generation, maintaining the cultural reproduction of society;
b) Household - maintaining the physical health of members of society, caring for children and elderly family members;
c) Economic - obtaining material resources from some family members for others, economic support minors and disabled members of society;
d) The sphere of primary social control is the moral regulation of the behavior of family members in various spheres of life, as well as the regulation of responsibilities and obligations in relations between spouses, parents and children, representatives of the older and middle generations;
e) Spiritual communication - personal development of family members, spiritual mutual enrichment;
f) Social status - providing a certain social status to family members, reproduction of the social structure;
g) Leisure - organization of rational leisure, mutual enrichment of interests;
h) emotional - receiving psychological protection, emotional support, emotional stabilization of individuals and their psychological therapy.

To understand the family as a social institution, the analysis of role relationships in the family is of great importance. Family role is one of the types of social roles of a person in society. Family roles are determined by the place and functions of the individual in the family group and are divided into: marital, parental, child, intergenerational and intragenerational, etc.

Currently, there is a process of weakening of the family as a social institution, a change in its social family functions. The family is losing its leading position in the socialization of individuals, in organizing leisure time and other important functions. Traditional roles, in which the woman ran the household, gave birth and raised children, and the husband was the owner, often the sole owner of the property, and ensured the economic independence of the family, were replaced by role ones, in which the vast majority of women began to participate in production, political activities, and economic support for the family and take an equal and sometimes leading part in family decisions. This significantly changed the nature of family functioning and entailed a number of positive and negative consequences for society. On the one hand, it contributed to the growth of women’s self-awareness and equality in marital relations; on the other hand, it aggravated the conflict situation and affected demographic behavior, leading to a decrease in the birth rate and an increase in the mortality rate.

Institutes of Education and Science

Learning is a fundamental process in the life of modern society. It allows an individual to adapt to the surrounding reality, using the experience of previous generations. Sociologists understand learning as a relatively permanent change in human behavior or ability that results from experience. A society may take upon itself the task of imparting certain attitudes, knowledge, and skills to its members through formal training—what sociologists call education.

Education is one aspect of the multifaceted process of socialization through which an individual acquires the patterns of behavior necessary for him to effectively participate in society. It represents a process in which some individuals have the status of a teacher, while others have the status of a student, performing roles corresponding to these statuses.

Schools are of essential functional importance for the survival and preservation of modern society. The socialization of youth is carried out in them in a “natural” way.

All societies assign certain statuses to individuals, regardless of their qualities and capabilities. Other statuses are achieved through choice and competition. Modern societies must select young people for positions and professions that require special talents. The Institute of Education, as a rule, performs this function, acting as an intermediary in the selection of individuals for certain types professional activity. By issuing diplomas, certificates and certificates, he determines which young people will have access to power, prestige and status.

But if once a university diploma gave a person elite professional status with a reward corresponding to this status, today it gives a person middle class status with a salary corresponding to it. Although the population is becoming more educated, the relative position various groups in the stratification system practically does not change.

Science is a sphere of human activity, the main function of which is the development and systematization of generally valid knowledge about reality.

At present, there is practically no sphere of human activity in which it would be possible to do without the use of scientific knowledge. The life of modern society largely depends on the success of science.

The subject of the sociology of science is the study of a complex set of relationships that develop both within the framework of scientific activity itself and between science and other areas of social life.

Although modern science impossible without centralization, excessive centralization creates the danger of its bureaucratization. The process of integration of sciences leads to the fact that even now the solution to most major problems depends on the participation in the work of specialists of various profiles, which involves the search for new organizational forms. Science as a social institution is becoming the most important factor in the socio-economic development of any of our societies, requiring increasing costs, due to which policy in the field of science is turning into one of the leading areas of social management.

According to the American sociologist R. Merton, scientific knowledge can be defined as empirically confirmed and logically consistent statements expressing the existence of certain regularities (and therefore being predictions). The institutional goal of science is to expand reliable knowledge. The entire structure of technical and moral norms of science is derived from this goal and these methods and is aimed at its implementation.

In Russia, science has always been dependent on the state. Historically, a contradictory and largely disastrous situation for its development has developed. On the one hand, following its own interests, the state financed and supported scientific institutions and scientists. On the other hand, government agencies made significant efforts to prevent the autonomy of science and its right to independently determine standards and norms, directions and issues of its activities.

Science in Russia is the field of activity that is most at risk in the process of social breakdown.

This is due to the following factors:

1) almost complete state institutionalization of science and scientific education, which makes this area dependent on state policy;
2) the dependence of modern scientific research and personnel training on socio-economic orders, which, in conditions of dramatic social changes, requires rapid reorientation both in the forms and content of scientific work and in the education system. However, due to the natural inertia of these areas and traditionally meager funding, such changes are difficult;
3) a significant influence on the course of processes in science and education of the general cultural atmosphere in society.

Reasonable state policy regarding science and education requires a careful attitude to the results already achieved, concern for maintaining personnel, a kind of state protectionism in relations with scientific sphere in the new conditions of its existence.

Institute of Religion

Religion can be characterized as a complex multi-level social formation, the meaning of which is determined by society’s need for the sacred.

Because the sacred is perceived with reverence and awe, it can only be approached through ritual - a social action prescribed by rules of behavior in the presence of the sacred. In their religious behavior, people create a social world of meanings and rules that guide their thoughts, feelings and actions in the same way as in other areas of life.

Religion as a social institution performs the following functions in society:

Worldview function. Religion provides answers to questions about the meaning of existence, the cause of human suffering and the essence of death.
- Compensatory function. The answers that religion gives to questions about the meaning of existence give believers consolation, convincing them that their suffering on earth is not in vain.
- Function of social self-identification. Religious teachings and practices unite believers into a community of people who share the same values ​​and pursue the same goals.
- Social regulatory function. Religious teachings apply to people's daily lives.
- Social control function. Religion exercises control over people's behavior. Most rules of a religious group apply only to its members, but some rules also impose restrictions on other citizens who do not belong to the religious community.
- Adaptive function. Religion can help people adapt to a new environment.
- Security function. Most religions support the government and resist any changes in the social situation. The Church protects and supports the existing government, and the government, in turn, provides support to the confessions that protect it.
- Social-critical function. Although religion is often so closely associated with the prevailing social order that it resists change, there are times when it criticizes the current situation in society.

Dysfunctions of religion are aspects of religion that are destructive to society. These include religious intolerance and fanaticism, leading to wars and mass persecution of non-believers and atheists, as well as savage forms of worship associated with human sacrifice and self-torture.

Modern Russian society is at a complex and contradictory stage of development. There is a transformation of not only the political, administrative and economic structure, but also the spiritual foundations of society. This process is currently far from its completion, which can be understood as the formation of more or less stable spiritual guidelines shared by members of society.

Social science. A complete course of preparation for the Unified State Exam Shemakhanova Irina Albertovna

1.9. Basic institutions of society

Social Institute – historically established, stable forms of organizing joint activities of people; an organized system of social connections and norms designed to satisfy the basic needs of society, social groups and individuals.

Conditions for the emergence of a system of social institutions:

a) a social need for a given institution must exist in society and be recognized by the majority of individuals;

b) society must have the necessary means of satisfying this need - resources (material, labor, organizational), a system of functions, actions, individual goal-setting, symbols and norms that form the cultural environment on the basis of which a new institution will be formed.

Social institutions– 1) elements of society, representing stable forms of organization and regulation of social life; 2) value-normative complexes (values, rules, norms, attitudes, patterns, standards of behavior in certain situations), as well as bodies and organizations that ensure their implementation and approval in the life of society; 3) a certain organization of social activity and social relations, carried out through standards of behavior, the emergence and grouping of which into a system are determined by the content of a specific task solved by this institution.

Main features (signs) of a social institution:

1. Each institute has its own goal of activity, mission, ideology.

2. Has an organized system of formal and informal structures.

3. Defines a system of cultural patterns, customs, traditions, values, symbols, rules of human behavior and a stable set of social actions (behavior) in accordance with these norms and patterns.

4. Clearly defines the functions, rights and responsibilities of interaction participants to achieve the goal.

5. Has certain means (material and human resources) and institutions to achieve the goal. They can be both material and ideal, symbolic.

6. Has a certain system of sanctions that encourage desired behavior and suppress deviant behavior.

The structure of a social institution includes: social groups and organizations designed to satisfy the needs of groups and individuals; a set of norms, social values ​​and patterns of behavior that ensure the satisfaction of needs; a system of symbols regulating relations in a certain field of activity (trademark, flag, brand, etc.); ideological justifications for the activities of a social institution; social resources used in the activities of the institute.

primary goal social institutions - achieving stability in the development of society.

Types of social institutions are classified:

1. By spheres of society: a) economic(division of labor, property, market, trade, wages, banking system, stock exchange, management, marketing, etc.); b) political(state, army, police, parliamentarism, presidency, monarchy, court, parties, civil society); V) stratification and kinship(class, estate, caste, gender discrimination, racial segregation, nobility, social security, family, marriage, paternity, maternity, adoption, twinning); G) culture(school, higher school, secondary vocational education, theaters, museums, clubs, libraries, church, monasticism, confession).

2. Depending on their field of activity: a) relational institutions(for example, insurance, labor, production) determine the role structure of society based on a certain set of characteristics; b) regulatory institutions determine the boundaries of an individual’s independence and his actions to achieve his own goals. This group includes institutions of the state, government, social protection, business, and healthcare.

3. According to functional qualities.

4. By lifetime, etc.

Social institutions are distinguished by the diversity and dynamism of their functions.

Types of functions of social institutions

A) General Features: 1. The function of consolidating and reproducing social relations is a system of rules and norms of behavior that consolidate, standardize the behavior of each member of the institution and make this behavior predictable; 2. Regulatory function – a pattern of behavior, norms and control developed by a social institution that regulates relationships between members of society (i.e. a social institution as an element of social control); 3. Integrative function – processes of cohesion, interdependence and mutual responsibility of members of social groups; 4. Transmitting function – transfer of social experience, allowing individuals to socialize to its values, norms and roles; 5. Communication function – dissemination of information both within the institute for the purpose of managing and monitoring compliance with standards, and its transfer in interaction with other institutions.

B) Selected functions:

– the social institution of marriage and family implements the function of reproduction of members of society together with the relevant departments of the state and private enterprises (antenatal clinics, maternity hospitals, a network of children's medical institutions, bodies for supporting and strengthening the family, etc.);

– the social health institute is responsible for maintaining the health of the population (clinics, hospitals and others medical institutions, as well as state bodies organizing the process of maintaining and promoting health);

– the social institution of production of means of subsistence performs a creative function;

– the social institution of law performs the function of developing legal documents and is in charge of compliance with laws and regulations, etc.

IN) R. Merton proposed to distinguish between “explicit” and “hidden (latent)” functions. Explicit - officially accepted, recognized and controlled by society; hidden - performed hidden or unintentionally. When these functions diverge, a double standard of social relations arises, which threatens the stability of society, since, along with official institutions, “shadow” institutions are formed that take on the function of regulating the most important social relations (for example, criminal structures).

Since society is a dynamic system, some institutions may disappear (the institution of slavery), while others may appear (the institution of advertising or the institution of civil society). The formation of a social institution is called a process institutionalization(the process of streamlining social relations, forming stable patterns of social interaction based on clear rules, laws, patterns and rituals).

Basic social institutions

1. Family as a social institution is characterized by a set of social norms, sanctions and patterns of behavior that regulate the relationships between spouses, parents and their children and other relatives. The family institution includes many more private institutions, such as the institution of marriage, the institution of kinship, the institution of motherhood and paternity, the institution of social protection of childhood, etc. Functions: economic, reproductive, educational, etc.

2. Social policy institutions: exercise political power. Internal functions: economic, stabilization, coordination, ensuring the protection of the population, etc.; external functions: defense, international cooperation, etc.

3. Economic institutions: institution of property, system of trade and distribution, financial system, insurance system and other types of systematized economic activity. The economy as a social institution provides people with the material conditions of existence, is a systematizing component of society, a decisive sphere of its life, determining the course of all processes occurring in society. Main function: production and distribution of goods and services.

4. Education– a social cultural institution that ensures the reproduction and development of society through the organized transfer of social experience in the form of knowledge, skills, and abilities. Education contributes to the socialization of the individual and the development of personality, promotes its self-realization. Functions: adaptation, professional, civil, general cultural, humanistic, etc.

5. Right– a social institution, a system of generally binding norms and relations protected by the state. The main functions of law: regulatory (regulates social relations) and protective (protects those relations that are useful for society as a whole).

6. Religion– how a social institution can be defined as a system of socially accepted beliefs and corresponding practices. Functions: ideological, compensatory, integrating, general cultural, etc.

Institutions are numerous and varied in their forms and manifestations. Large institutions may include institutions of a lower level (for example, a court - institutions of the legal profession, prosecutor's office, judges). Each institution can satisfy several needs (the church is able to satisfy religious, moral, cultural needs), and the same need can be satisfied by different institutions (spiritual needs can be satisfied by art, science, religion, etc.).

The activity of a social institution is determined by: a set of specific norms and regulations governing relevant types of behavior; integration of a social institution into the socio-political, ideological and value structures of society; the availability of material resources and conditions that ensure the successful implementation of regulatory requirements and the implementation of social control.

Social institutions contribute to the consolidation and reproduction of certain social relations that are especially important for society, as well as the stability of the system in all main spheres of its life. Any social transformations are carried out through changes in social institutions.

Society is a complex social entity, and the forces operating within it are so interconnected that it is impossible to foresee the consequences of each individual action. In this regard, institutions have manifest functions, which are easily recognized as part of the institution's recognized goals, and latent functions, which are carried out unintentionally and may be unrecognized or, if recognized, considered a by-product.

People with significant and high institutional roles often do not sufficiently realize latent effects that can affect their activities and the activities of people associated with them. As a positive example of the use of latent functions in American textbooks, the activities of Henry Ford, the founder of the campaign bearing his name, are most often cited. He sincerely hated trade unions, big cities, big loans and installment purchases, but as he advanced in society, he more than anyone else stimulated their development, realizing that the latent, hidden, side functions of these institutions worked for him, for his business. However, the latent functions of institutions can either support recognized goals or render them irrelevant. They may even lead to significant damage to the norms of the institution.

How does a social institution function? What is its role in the processes taking place in society? Let's consider these questions.

Explicit functions of social institutions. If we look at it at its core general view activity of any social institution, then we can assume that its main function is to satisfy social needs, for which it was created and exists. However, to carry out this function, each institution performs functions in relation to its participants that ensure the joint activities of people striving to satisfy needs. These are primarily the following functions.
1. The function of consolidating and reproducing social relations. Each institution has a system of rules and norms of behavior that reinforce and standardize the behavior of its members and make this behavior predictable. Appropriate social control provides order and framework within which the activities of each member of the institution should take place. Thus, the institution ensures the stability of the social structure of society. Indeed, the code of the family institution, for example, implies that members of society should be divided into fairly stable small groups - families. With the help of social control, the institution of family strives to ensure the state of stability of each individual family and limits the possibilities of its disintegration. The destruction of the family institution is, first of all, the emergence of chaos and uncertainty, the collapse of many groups, the violation of traditions, the impossibility of ensuring a normal sexual life and quality education of the younger generation.
2. The regulatory function is that the functioning of social institutions ensures the regulation of relationships between members of society by developing patterns of behavior. The entire cultural life of a person takes place with his participation in various institutions. Whatever type of activity an individual is engaged in, he always encounters an institution that regulates his behavior in this area. Even if an activity is not ordered or regulated, people immediately begin to institutionalize it. Thus, with the help of institutions, a person exhibits predictable and standardized behavior in social life. He fulfills role requirements and expectations and knows what to expect from the people around him. Such regulation is necessary for joint activities.
3. Integrative function. This function includes the processes of cohesion, interdependence and mutual responsibility of members of social groups, occurring under the influence of institutional norms, rules, sanctions and role systems. The integration of people at the institute is accompanied by streamlining of the system of interactions, an increase in the volume and frequency of contacts. All this leads to increased stability and integrity of the elements of the social structure, especially social organizations.
Any integration at an institute consists of three main elements or necessary requirements: 1) consolidation or combination of efforts; 2) mobilization, when each group member invests his resources in achieving goals; 3) conformity of the personal goals of individuals with the goals of others or the goals of the group. Integrative processes carried out with the help of institutions are necessary for the coordinated activity of people, the exercise of power, and the creation of complex organizations. Integration is one of the conditions for the survival of organizations, as well as one of the ways to correlate the goals of its participants.
4. Broadcasting function. Society could not develop if it were not for the possibility of transmitting social experience. Every institution needs new people to function properly. This can happen through both expanding the social boundaries of the institution and changing generations. In this regard, every institution has a mechanism that allows individuals to be socialized into its values, norms and roles. For example, a family, raising a child, strives to orient him towards those values family life, which his parents adhere to. Government agencies they strive to influence citizens in order to instill in them norms of obedience and loyalty, and the church tries to attract as many members of society as possible to the faith.
5. Communication function. Information produced within an institution must be disseminated both within the institution for the purpose of managing and monitoring compliance with regulations, and in interactions between institutions. Moreover, the nature of the communicative connections of the institution has its own specifics - these are formal connections carried out in a system of institutionalized roles. As researchers note, the communicative capabilities of institutions are not the same: some are specifically designed to transmit information (mass media), others have very limited capabilities for this; some actively perceive information (scientific institutes), others passively (publishing houses).

The explicit functions of institutions are expected and necessary. They are formed and declared in codes and enshrined in a system of statuses and roles. When an institution fails to fulfill its obvious functions, disorganization and change will certainly await it: these obvious, necessary functions can be appropriated by other institutions.

Latent functions. Along with the direct results of the actions of social institutions, there are other results that are outside the immediate goals of a person and are not planned in advance. These results could have significant implications for society. Thus, the church strives to consolidate its influence to the greatest extent through ideology, the introduction of faith, and often achieves success in this. However, regardless of the goals of the church, there are people who leave production activities for the sake of religion. Fanatics begin persecuting people of other faiths, and the possibility of major social conflicts on religious grounds may arise. The family strives to socialize the child to the accepted norms of family life, but it often happens that family education leads to a conflict between the individual and a cultural group and serves to protect the interests of certain social strata.

The existence of latent functions of institutions is most clearly shown by T. Veblen, who wrote that it would be naive to say that people eat black caviar because they want to satisfy their hunger, and buy a luxurious Cadillac because they want to buy a good car. Obviously, these things are not acquired to satisfy obvious immediate needs. T. Veblen concludes from this that the production of consumer goods performs a hidden, latent function - it satisfies the needs of people to increase their own prestige. Such an understanding of the actions of the institution for the production of consumer goods radically changes the opinion about its activities, tasks and operating conditions.

Thus, it is obvious that only by studying the latent functions of institutions can we determine the true picture of social life. For example, very often sociologists are faced with a phenomenon that is incomprehensible at first glance, when an institution continues to exist successfully, even if it not only does not fulfill its functions, but also interferes with their implementation. Such an institution obviously has hidden functions with which it satisfies the needs of certain social groups. A similar phenomenon can be observed especially often among political institutions in which latent functions are most developed.

Latent functions are, therefore, the subject which should primarily interest the student of social structures. The difficulty in recognizing them is compensated by creating a reliable picture of social connections and characteristics of social objects, as well as the ability to control their development and manage the social processes occurring in them.

Relationships between institutions. There is no such social institution that would operate in a vacuum, in isolation from other social institutions. The action of any social institution cannot be understood until all its interrelations and relationships are explained from the standpoint of the general culture and subcultures of groups. Religion, government, education, production and consumption, trade, family - all these institutions are in multiple interactions. Thus, production conditions must take into account the formation of new families in order to meet their needs for new apartments, household items, child care facilities, etc. At the same time, the education system largely depends on the activities of government institutions that maintain the prestige and possible prospects for the development of educational institutions. Religion can also influence the development of education or government institutions. A teacher, a father of a family, a priest or a functionary of a voluntary organization are all subject to influence from the government, since the actions of the latter (for example, the issuance of regulations) can lead to either success or failure in achieving vital goals.

An analysis of the many interrelations of institutions can explain why institutions are rarely able to completely control the behavior of their members, to combine their actions and attitudes with institutional ideas and norms. Thus, schools may apply standardized curricula to all students, but how students respond to them depends on many factors beyond the teacher's control. Children in whose families interesting conversations are encouraged and carried out and who are introduced to reading books that develop them, acquire intellectual interests more easily and to a greater extent than those children in whose families preference is given to watching TV and reading entertaining literature. Churches preach high ethical ideals, but parishioners often feel the need to neglect them due to the influence of business ideas, political leanings, or desires to leave the family. Patriotism glorifies self-sacrifice for the good of the state, but it is often inconsistent with many of the individual desires of those raised in families, business institutions, or some political institutions.

The need to harmonize the system of roles assigned to individuals can often be satisfied through agreement between individual institutions. Industry and trade in any civilized country depend on the support of the government, which regulates taxes and establishes exchange between individual institutions of industry and trade. In turn, the government depends on industry and trade, which economically support regulations and other government actions.

In addition, given the importance of some social institutions in public life, other institutions try to seize control over their activities. Since, for example, education plays a very significant role in society, attempts to fight for influence on the institution of education are observed among political organizations, industrial organizations, churches, etc. Politicians, for example, contribute to the development of schools, confident that by doing so they support attitudes towards patriotism and national identity. Church institutions try, through the educational system, to instill in students loyalty to church doctrines and deep faith in God. Production organizations are trying to guide students from childhood to master production professions, and the military is trying to raise people who can successfully serve in the army.

The same can be said about the influence of other institutions on the institution of the family. The state is trying to regulate the number of marriages and divorces, as well as the birth rate. It also sets minimum standards for the care of children. Schools are looking for cooperation with families, creating teacher councils with the participation of parents and parent committees. Churches create ideals for family life and try to hold family ceremonies within a religious framework.

Many institutional roles begin to conflict due to the affiliation of the individual performing them with several institutions. An example is the well-known conflict between career and family orientations. In this case, we are dealing with clashes of norms and rules of several institutions. Research by sociologists shows that each institution strives to the greatest extent to “disconnect” its members from playing roles in other institutions. Enterprises try to include the activities of their employees' wives in their sphere of influence (system of benefits, orders, family vacations, etc.). Army institutional rules can also have a negative impact on family life. And here they find ways to include wives in army life, so that husband and wife are related to common institutional norms. The problem of a person fulfilling exclusively the role of a given institution is most definitely solved in some institutions of the Christian Church, where the clergy is freed from family responsibilities by taking a vow of celibacy.

The appearance of institutions is constantly adapting to changes in society. Changes in one institution usually lead to changes in others. After changing family customs, traditions and rules of behavior, a new system social provision of such changes involving many institutions. When peasants come from the village to the city and create their own subculture there, the actions of political institutions must change, legal organizations etc. We are accustomed to the fact that any change in political organization affects all aspects of our daily life. There are no institutions that would be transformed without change into other institutions or would exist separately from them.

Institutional autonomy. The fact that institutions are interdependent in their activities does not mean that they are willing to give up internal ideological and structural control. One of their main goals is to exclude the influence of leaders of other institutions and keep their institutional norms, rules, codes and ideologies intact. All major institutions develop patterns of behavior that help maintain a degree of independence and prevent the domination of people grouped into other institutions. Enterprises and businesses strive for independence from the state; educational institutions also try to achieve the greatest independence and prevent the penetration of norms and rules of foreign institutions. Even the institution of courtship achieves independence in relation to the institution of the family, which leads to some mystery and secrecy of its rituals. Each institution tries to carefully sort out the guidelines and rules brought in from other institutions in order to select those guidelines and rules that are least likely to affect the independence of the institution. Social order- this is a successful combination of interaction between institutions and their respect for independence in relation to each other. This combination allows one to avoid serious and destructive institutional conflicts.

The dual function of intellectuals in relation to institutions. In all complex societies, institutions require constant ideological and organizational support and strengthening of the ideology, system of norms and rules on which the institution is based. This is done by two role groups members of the institute: 1) bureaucrats monitoring institutional behavior; 2) intellectuals who explain and comment on the ideology, norms and rules of behavior of social institutions. In our case, intellectuals are those who, regardless of education or occupation, devote themselves to the serious analysis of ideas. The importance of ideology lies in maintaining loyalty to institutional norms through which the heterogeneous attitudes of those people who are able to manipulate ideas develop. Intellectuals are called upon to satisfy the urgent need for explanation social development, and to do so in terms consistent with institutional norms.

For example, intellectuals associated with political communist institutions set out to show that modern history is indeed developing in accordance with the predictions of K. Marx and V. Lenin. At the same time, intellectuals who study US political institutions argue that real history is built on the development of the ideas of free enterprise and democracy. At the same time, institutional leaders understand that intellectuals cannot be completely trusted, since while studying the basic foundations of the ideology they support, they also analyze its imperfections. In this regard, intellectuals can begin to develop a competitive ideology that better suits the requirements of the time. Such intellectuals become revolutionary and attack traditional institutions. That is why, during the formation of totalitarian institutions, they first of all strive to protect ideology from the actions of intellectuals.

The 1966 campaign in China, which destroyed the influence of intellectuals, confirmed Mao Zedong's fear that intellectuals would refuse to support the revolutionary regime. Something similar happened in our country in the pre-war years. If we turn to history, we will undoubtedly see that any power based on faith in the abilities of leaders (charismatic power), as well as power that uses violence and undemocratic methods, seeks to protect the actions of the institution of power from the participation of intellectuals or completely subordinate them to its influence . Exceptions only emphasize this rule.

So, it is often difficult to use the activities of intellectuals, because if today they can support institutional norms, then tomorrow they become their critics. Nevertheless, there are no institutions in the modern world that have escaped the constant influence of intellectual criticism, and there are no properties of institutions that can continue to exist for a long time without intellectual protection. It becomes clear why some totalitarian political regimes vacillate between a certain amount of freedom and repression of intellectuals. The intellectual best able to defend fundamental institutions is the person who does so out of a desire for truth, regardless of obligations to institutions. Such a person is both useful and dangerous for the well-being of the institution - useful because he talentedly seeks to protect institutional values ​​and respect for the institution, and dangerous because in the search for truth he is capable of becoming an opponent of this institution. This dual role forces fundamental institutions to deal with the problem of ensuring discipline in society and the problem of conflict and loyalty for intellectuals.

4. Correlation of TGP with other sciences studying state and law

6.Tgp functions.

7. Concept, characteristics and structure of legal practice.

1. Precedent of interpretation

8. Types of legal practice.

2. In the Soviet legal system, the following three types of legal practice (conditional names) are clearly distinguished:

9. Functions of legal practice.

10. Interaction of legal science and practice.

11. The concept of method and methodology in scientific knowledge.

1. By scope

2. By stage of application (by level of cognitive process)

12. General methods.

13. General scientific methods.

14.Special (private scientific) and private legal methods.

16. Power as a way of managing the joint activities of people: concept, features, forms (varieties)

17. Power structure.

18. Types of power.

3) From the point of view of its social level, one can distinguish:

4) In relation to politics

5) By method of organization

8) Based on the breadth of distribution, the following types of power are distinguished:

9) According to the methods of interaction between the subject and the object of power, power is distinguished:

19. The concept and properties of state power.

20. Pre-state society

21. Prerequisites for the origin of the state

22. Variety of theories of the origin of state and law

23.Modern science on the origin of the theory of state and law

Specialization theory

Eastern (Asian) way of the emergence of the state

Western path to the emergence of the state

24. Basic patterns of development of the state and law

25. Pluralism in the understanding and definition of the state

26. State: concept, signs.

27. The essence of the state

28.Sots.Appointment of state government

29. The concept of politics. A systematic approach to the analysis of political life.

30. Political system: concept, elements.

31. The place and role of the state in the political system.

34. Concept, meaning and objective nature of the functions of the state. Their relationship with tasks and goals.

Relationship with tasks and goals

Algorithm:

35. Types of functions

36. Forms of exercising functions

37. Methods of performing state functions

38. Functions of the Russian state, their evolution

39. State apparatus: concept, features.

40. Principles of organization of the apparatus of a modern state.

41. State bodies: concept, characteristics, types.

42. Structure of the apparatus of the modern state

3. Legislative bodies

4. Executive bodies

5. Judicial authorities

43. The concept and elements of the form of the state.

44. Form of government.

45. Form of government.

1. According to the method of formation of the subjects of the federation, they are divided into:

2. According to the method of centralization, federations are divided into:

3. According to the status of the subjects of the federation:

4. Based on the right to secede from the federation:

5. By method of education:

46. ​​Interstate unions.

47. Political regime

Political and state regime: relationship

Democratic regime

Totalitarian regime

Authoritarian regime

48. The relationship between the elements of the form of the state.

49. Form of the modern Russian state

2 Points of view

50. Approaches to the classification of states.

3) Currently, two main approaches to the typology of states dominate in legal and other literature: formational and civilized.

51. Formational approach to the typology of the state.

52. Civilizational approach to the typology of states.

53. The concept of civil society.

15. Society: concept, social institutions

Society- a set of people who have historically lived in a certain territory for generations and are connected by a common economic, social, political and spiritual background. unified state power and legal system.

The people who make up a given society, as a rule, have the same morals, religion, and language. They subjectively distinguish themselves from people belonging to other communities.

A structurally developed society consists of individuals who form social groups (families, strata, strata, classes) in accordance with tribal, professional, property, national and other characteristics. These subjects realize their interests in activities in relation to each other, which constitute social life.

People are social beings; they cannot live, work, without uniting according to needs, interests, and goals. Social and political institutions arise due to biological, social, political and other reasons with objective necessity.

Institutes

Historically, the first social institution was tribal communities. Genus was a group (community) of people united by blood or presumed kinship, common property, joint labor and equal distribution. This social institution was very stable and viable. It ensured the survival of people who were still largely dependent on natural forces and could only exist on the basis of collective economic and social unity.

The clans existed and functioned for many millennia, they united into larger social institutions - tribes.

Later, religious associations (orders, etc.), trade and merchant guilds and other social institutions.

Historically first political institution, the most important and largest, became the state. As society becomes more complex and democracy develops, new social-production (cooperatives), socio-political (trade unions), political (political parties) and other institutions emerge.

Social institutions

Society is formed from a system of social institutions and is a complex set of economic, political, legal, spiritual relations that ensure its integrity as social system.

Social institution in a broad sense- historically established, stable forms of organizing joint activities of people; social institution in a narrower sense- is an organized system of social connections and norms designed to satisfy the basic needs of society, social groups and individuals.

Main target social institutions - achieving stability during the development of society.

Highlightfunctionssocialinstitutes:

1. Meeting the needs of society.

Needs, which are satisfied by social institutions are diverse. For example, society's need for security can be supported by the institute of defense, spiritual needs - by the church, needs for knowledge of the surrounding world - by science. Each institution can satisfy several needs (the church is able to satisfy religious, moral, cultural needs), and the same need can be satisfied by different institutions (spiritual needs can be satisfied by art, science, religion, etc.).

2. Function of consolidation and reproduction public relations. Any institution consolidates and standardizes the behavior of members of society through its rules and norms of behavior. Each institution has a set of norms and rules of behavior, fixed, standardizing the behavior of its participants and making this behavior predictable. Social control provides the order and framework within which the activities of each member of the institution should take place. Thus, the institution ensures the stability of the structure of society. The Code of the Family Institute assumes that members of society are divided into stable small groups - families. Social control ensures a state of stability for each family and limits the possibility of its disintegration.

3. Regulatory function ensures the regulation of relationships between members of society by developing patterns of behavior and regulating their actions. It ensures the regulation of relationships between members of society through the development of patterns and patterns of behavior. A person’s entire life takes place with the participation of various social institutions, but each social institution regulates activities. Consequently, a person, with the help of social institutions, demonstrates predictability and standard behavior, fulfills role requirements and expectations

4. Integrative function includes the process of interdependence and mutual responsibility of members of social groups. This function ensures cohesion, interdependence and irresponsibility of members. This occurs under the influence of institutionalized norms, values, rules, a system of roles and sanctions. It streamlines the system of interactions, which leads to increased stability and integrity of the elements of the social structure.

5. Broadcasting function(socialization). Its content is the transfer of social experience, familiarization with the values, norms, and roles of a given society. Society cannot develop without the transfer of social experience. Each institution for its normal functioning needs the arrival of new people who have mastered its rules. This happens by changing the social boundaries of the institution and changing generations. Consequently, each institution provides a mechanism for socialization to its values, norms, and roles.

6. Communicative functions. Information produced by an institution should be disseminated both within the institution (for the purpose of managing and monitoring compliance with social norms) and in interaction between institutions. This function has its own specifics - formal connections. This is the main function of the media institute. Scientific institutions actively perceive information. The commutative capabilities of institutions are not the same: some have them to a greater extent, others to a lesser extent.

The structure of a social institution form:

social groups and social organizations designed to satisfy the needs of groups and individuals;

totality normal, social values ​​and patterns of behavior that ensure satisfaction of needs;

a system of symbols regulating relations in the economic sphere of activity (trademark, flag, brand, etc.);

ideological justifications for the activities of a social institution;

social resources used in the activities of the institute.

In accordance with the spheres of public life, four main groups of institutions can be distinguished:

economic institutions - division of labor own, market, trade, wage, banking system, stock exchange, management, marketing etc.;

political institutions- state, army, militia, police, parliamentarism, presidency, monarchy, court, parties, civil society;

institutions of stratification and kinship - class, estate, caste, gender discrimination, racial segregation, nobility, social security, family, marriage, paternity, maternity, adoption, twinning;

cultural institutions- school, higher school, secondary vocational education, theaters, museums, clubs, libraries, church, monasticism, confession.