Fundamentals of marketing and management. Coursework: Fundamentals of management and marketing Principles of management and fundamentals of marketing

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

1. Essence, goals, basic principles and functions of marketing

According to the definition of the American scientist F. Kotler marketing- a type of human activity aimed at satisfying needs and wants through exchange.

The original idea underlying marketing is the idea satisfying human needs and requirements(physical needs and needs for food, clothing, warmth, safety, social needs and needs, the need for knowledge and self-expression, etc.). People's needs are limitless, but the resources to satisfy them are limited. So a person will choose those goods that give him the greatest satisfaction within his capabilities.

Demand is a need backed by purchasing power. It is not difficult to list the demand of a particular society at a particular point in time. However, demand is not a reliable indicator because it changes. Changes in choice are influenced by both price changes and income levels. A person chooses a product whose combination of properties provides him with the greatest satisfaction for this price, taking into account their specific needs and resources.

Human needs, wants and demands are satisfied by products. Under goods in a broad sense, can be understood as anything that can satisfy a need or need and is offered to the market for the purpose of attracting attention, acquisition, use or consumption.

Exchange is the act of receiving a desired object from someone and offering something in return.

Market in marketing it is understood as a set of existing and potential consumers of a product (sales market).

A key aspect of marketing is mindset. He suggests that when making marketing decisions, a manager should look at everything through the eyes of the consumer. Therefore, these solutions must be those that the consumer needs and wants.

The American Marketing Association (AMA) defines marketing as follows:

Marketing is the process of planning and implementing the concept, pricing, promotion and implementation of ideas, goods and services through exchange that satisfies the goal individuals and organizations.

There are four components to this definition:
1) management action (foresight, goal setting and planning, meeting demand);
2) a set of controlled elements of marketing activities (product (intention), price, distribution (sales) and promotion);
3) objects with the help of which demand is satisfied and goals are achieved (goods, services, ideas, organizations, people, territories);
4) method of satisfying demand (exchange).

Thus, the previous definition can be briefly expressed as follows: “Marketing is the management of satisfying demand through trade.”

Marketing goals can be:
– maximum consumption;
– achieving maximum customer satisfaction;
– providing the widest possible choice;
– maximum improvement in quality of life.

From the point of view of enterprise management, the following marketing goals can be distinguished:
– increase in income;
– growth in sales volumes;
– increase in market share;
– creation and improvement of the image, fame of the enterprise and its products.

Marketing management refers to the analysis, planning, implementation and control of activities designed to establish and maintain exchanges with target customers in order to achieve certain enterprise goals.

The following tasks of marketing activities in an enterprise can be distinguished:
1. Research, analysis and assessment of the needs of actual and potential consumers of the company's products in areas of interest to the company.
2. Marketing support for the development of new products and services of the company.
3. Analysis, assessment and forecasting of the condition and market development in which the enterprise operates or will operate, including research into the activities of competitors.
4. Participation in the formation of strategy and tactics market behavior enterprises.
5. Formation of the enterprise’s assortment policy.
6. Development pricing policy enterprises.
7. Development of a policy for the distribution of goods of the enterprise.
8. Marketing communications.
9. Service.

1. Fundamentals of marketing activities. Principles, goals and concepts of marketing.

Marketing(from the English market - “market”) is the original unity of strict science and the ability to work effectively in the market.

Marketing is a unified complex of organizing the production and marketing of goods (services), aimed at identifying and satisfying the needs of a specific group of consumers in order to make a profit.

Marketing is a relatively young science (about a hundred years old), but this does not mean that before the recognition of this science, no one used its methods. This mainly happened on a subconscious level: from the moment the product and the market appeared, every merchant was interested in selling his product, using various attempts to promote it (advertising, customer research, etc.). Naturally, this was all at a primitive level. And only in recent decades has a new movement emerged in management science, with clearly defined boundaries, functions, goals, and methods, called “marketing.” This term first appeared at the beginning of the twentieth century. in the USA, and after only 15 - 20 years it penetrated and began to be actively used and developed in many countries around the world. Marketing begins its development in 1960–1970, influenced by both external and internal factors:

a) increased standard of living;

b) an increase in the share of disposable income;

c) improving the quality of social services provided;

d) development of communication systems (people actively begin to travel, bringing with them not only new goods, but also new needs);

d) the desire to spend your free time profitably.

In this regard, entrepreneurs begin to explore these factors in order to improve their products, increase sales and maximize profits. In these marketing programs, companies include measures to improve the quality of the product, its assortment groups, research of buyers, potential competitors, pricing policy objectives, ways and techniques of increasing demand, and much more.

Marketing is a unique philosophy of production, which is constantly subject to the market, political, economic and social influences. With the correct understanding environment", the ability to quickly respond to market changes, the ability to accept flexibility in solving strategic and tactical problems, marketing can become the foundation for the long-term and profitable activities of any company.

The very essence of marketing contains certain concepts: need (need), request (demand), product and exchange. The initial component of human nature is need: the need for food, clothing, warmth, safety, etc., i.e. need is a person’s feeling of lack of something. But the need that took specific form under the influence of the level of culture and personality of the individual, is called a need. Needs are limitless, and therefore a person chooses only those that his financial capabilities allow him. The world of goods and services is designed to satisfy human needs.

A need backed by purchasing power is called demand. Demand is a variable quantity. It is influenced by factors such as price levels, income levels, fashion and many others.

Product- this is something that can satisfy a need (need) and is offered to the market for the purpose of sale.

Exchange is the act of receiving something in exchange for something.

The commercial exchange of values between two parties is a transaction.

To complete a transaction, certain conditions must be met:

a) availability of transaction objects;

b) presence of subjects of the transaction;

c) determining the terms of the transaction;

d) determining the time and place of the transaction.

Any transaction takes place on the market. IN modern society market is not necessarily a physical quantity (place).

From here the role of marketing for the economy– this is an increase in trade and market efficiency.

Marketing Principles

One of the foundations of the activity of any enterprise operating on the principles of marketing is the motto: “produce only what the market needs, what will be in demand by the buyer.” The main idea of marketing is the idea of human needs, which is the essence of this science. This implies basic principles, which include:

1) achieving the final justified result of the company’s activities;

2) taking over a certain market share in the long term;

3) effective sales of goods;

4) choice of effective marketing strategy and pricing policies;

5) creation of market novelty goods that allow the company to be profitable;

6) constantly conduct market research in order to study demand for further active adaptation to the requirements of potential buyers;

7) use an integrated approach to linking the goals set with the available resources and capabilities of the company;

8) searching for new ways for the company to increase the efficiency of the production line, the creative initiative of staff to introduce innovations;

9) improving product quality;

10) cost reduction;

11) organize the supply of the company’s products in such a volume, at such a place and time that would most suit the end consumer;

12) track scientific and technical progress society;

13) achieve advantages in the fight against competitors.

Marketing experience and practice have clearly indicated that the use of only some components (product research or consumer research) does not give the desired result. Only an integrated approach gives results to an enterprise - it allows it to enter the market with its product and be profitable.

Marketing goals and objectives

Marketing is a social science, so it affects a great many people. For a number of reasons (education, social status, religious beliefs and much more) the attitude towards this discipline is ambiguous, giving rise to contradictions. On the one hand, marketing is an integral part of the life of a product, on the other hand, it carries a negative perception: it creates unnecessary needs, develops greed in a person, and “attacks” with advertising from all sides.

What are the true goals of marketing?

Many people believe that main goal This science is sales and its promotion.

P. Drucker (management theorist) writes: “The goal of marketing is to make sales efforts unnecessary. His goal is to know and understand the client so well that the product or service will exactly suit the latter and sell itself.”

This does not mean that sales and promotion efforts are no longer important. Most likely, they become part of the enterprise’s marketing activities to achieve the main goal - maximizing sales and profits. From the above we can conclude that marketing is a type of human activity that is aimed at satisfying human needs and wants through exchange.

So, the main goals of marketing are the following.

1. Maximization possible high level of consumption - firms are trying to increase their sales, maximize profits using various methods and techniques (introduce fashion for their products, outline a sales growth strategy, etc.).

2. Maximization consumer satisfaction, i.e. the goal of marketing is to identify existing needs and offer the greatest possible range of homogeneous goods. But since the level of consumer satisfaction is very difficult to measure, it is also difficult to evaluate marketing activities it is difficult in this direction.

3. Maximize choice. This goal follows and is, as it were, a continuation of the previous one. The difficulty in realizing this goal is not to create branded abundance and imaginary choice in the market. And some consumers, when there is an excess of certain product categories, experience a feeling of anxiety and confusion.

4. Maximizing quality of life. Many are inclined to believe that the presence of an assortment of goods has a beneficial effect on its quality, quantity, availability, cost, that is, the product is “improved”, and therefore, the consumer can satisfy his needs as much as possible and improve the quality of life. Supporters of this view recognize that improving the quality of life is a noble goal, but at the same time, this quality is difficult to measure, which is why sometimes contradictions arise.

Marketing tasks:

1) research, analysis, assessment of the needs of real and potential buyers;

2) marketing assistance in developing a new product (service);

3) provision service;

4) Marketing communications;

5) research, analysis, assessment and forecasting of the state of real and potential markets;

6) research of competitors’ activities;

7) sales of goods (services);

8) formation of assortment policy;

9) formation and implementation of the company’s pricing policy;

10) formation of a company's behavior strategy.

Marketing functions

The general functions of marketing are management, organization, planning, forecasting, analysis, evaluation, accounting, control. Specific functions are: studying the market, consumers and demand, environmental research, implementing the company’s product policy, organizing service, maintaining pricing policy, product distribution, maintaining and stimulating demand, etc.

Marketing functions are the interconnection of activities.

The functions of marketing arise from its principles and there are the following widows:

1) analytical- This comprehensive analysis micro and macro environments, which includes analysis of markets, consumers, demand, competitors and competition, as well as products;

2) production– this is the production of new goods that meet the ever-increasing demands of consumers and includes the organization of production of a new product, the organization of supply and quality management;

3) sales- this is a function that includes everything that happens to a product after its production, but before the start of consumption, namely: organization of product distribution, organization of service, organization of demand formation and sales promotion, formation of product and pricing policy;

4) managerial: search possible ways development of the enterprise’s activities, especially in the long term, i.e. organization of strategy and planning, information management, organization of communications;

5) control.

Marketing concept

At one time, Professor of Marketing at Northwestern University in the USA F. Kotler gave the concept of “marketing concept”, defining it “as a relatively new approach in entrepreneurial activity, where the key to achieving organizational goals is to identify the needs and wants of target markets and provide the desired satisfaction in ways that are more efficient and more productive than competitors.”

In other words, F. Kotler defines the essence of the marketing concept using expressions like: “Find needs and satisfy them,” “Love the customer, not the product,” “Produce what you can sell instead of trying to sell what you can produce.” ", "Doing everything in our power to maximize the value, quality and satisfaction of every customer dollar spent." In other words, the main object of the marketing concept is a comprehensive study of the company’s clients with their requests, needs and wants. The company must conduct all its activities with the expectation of maximum customer satisfaction, in return receiving an appropriate profit.

According to F. Kotler, the core of the marketing concept is focusing on the needs, requests and demands of customers, maximizing consumer satisfaction to achieve the main goal of the company.

Thus, the starting point of the concept is the theory of consumer sovereignty. F. Kotler, conducting research and also relying on marketing concepts taken in a historical context, identified five global, basic concepts on the basis of which any company interested in making a profit conducted (is and will conduct) its activities.

1. Improvement of production: The main idea of this concept is that consumers choose (buy) those goods that they know and that suit them at a price. Therefore, firm managers must first improve production and then improve the efficiency of the distribution system. This concept works in the following situations: when there is a shortage of a certain product in the market and when the cost needs to be reduced to increase demand.

2. Product improvement: this concept begins to “work” only after the implementation of the first one - production.

The essence of the concept of “product improvement” is that consumers will purchase only those products that have the best properties, the best quality characteristics. And most importantly, the product should be improved according to the opinions and wishes of customers.

When implementing this concept, one condition must be observed - the market must be saturated with this type of product. If this condition is not met, then there can be no talk of any quality.

3. Intensification of commercial efforts: this concept is that consumers will not buy goods in sufficient quantities for the organization until the latter takes appropriate measures to stimulate demand and sales. This is the situation when the product is present on the market in the required quantity and with the appropriate quality, but there is such an aspect as the factor of "intensification of commercial efforts", i.e. the company must make its product not only affordable and of high quality, but also show the consumer that the possession of this product is prestigious, distinguishes it from the surrounding reality. The bet is placed on psychological factor, “processing the consumer” to strengthen his well-being.

4. The concept of marketing itself or targeted marketing: it is not only to identify the needs and requirements of customers, but the main thing is to provide them with a satisfaction that is more desirable for them than for competitors.

In the words of F. Kotler, this is explained in the aphorism: “Find needs or create a customer’s need and satisfy them”, i.e., in order to increase demand, it is necessary to come up with some kind of “know-how” for the product, it is necessary to distinguish it from the mass of goods in such a way that so that you “want to buy” it.

5. The concept of social and ethical marketing: F. Kotler considers it the most modern. The main goal of this concept is that for the company the main task should not be the fulfillment of all the conditions reflected in the above concepts, but should be the preservation and strengthening of social welfare, as well as the welfare of each individual client (consumer). The difference between social and ethical marketing from previous concepts is that any company, satisfying any needs, must act with regard to the long-term benefit of society. And it is precisely this direction of the company's image that should attract buyers as a competitiveness among many other organizations. And also this concept must be balanced in all three factors: the profit of the company, consumer needs and the interests of society.

Marketing subjects

Marketing entities are understood as manufacturers and service enterprises, wholesalers and various trade organizations, marketing professionals, as well as various consumers.

Each of them have their main functions.

1. Manufacturer or service enterprises - firms that produce goods or provide services.

2. Wholesale organizations– firms purchasing products for resale in retail trade.

3. Various organizations sell goods to end consumers.

4. Marketing specialists perform certain marketing functions.

5. The consumer purchases products for his personal consumption.

It is important to note that usually one entity cannot assume all marketing functions due to the fact that it does not have sufficient financial resources; often does not produce appropriate products; has no desire to carry out marketing activities; sizes do not allow and much more.

By marketing object we mean the main categories and market factors:

1. Goods (services), i.e. everything that can satisfy a need or need and is offered to the market for the purpose of acquisition, consumption or use;

3. Offer;

6. Consumer;

7. Seller;

8. Deal;

9. Need, need.

Types of Marketing

1. Conversion. This type is associated with negative demand. Negative demand is a situation where all or many consumers on the market reject a particular type of product (service). For example, vegetarians show a negative demand for animal products, etc.

The main task of this type of marketing is to develop a specific plan that contributes to the emergence of demand for such products, with a possible development perspective.

2. Stimulating.This type is associated with consumer indifference to certain goods. Indifference of lack of demand occurs, firstly, when a product loses its value in the eyes of buyers; secondly, goods have no value at all this market; thirdly, when the market is not ready for the appearance of this product. The main objective of marketing is to stimulate demand through certain methods.

3. Developmental, associated with the beginning of the formation of demand for goods.

The main task is to identify potential demand and create an appropriate product.

4. Remarketing is the search for new ways of marketing in order to create a new life cycle a product for which demand has fallen.

5. Synchromarketing designed to change the structure of demand. So, for example, in relation to theaters, which are rarely visited on weekdays, but are crowded on weekends. To solve this problem, synchronous marketing can offer to either advertise those performances that take place on weekdays, or increase the price of admission on weekends.

6. Supportive is marketing focused on maintaining the existing full demand by maintaining the required sales volume, stimulating sales activities, and controlling costs.

7. Demarketing is marketing that solves the problem of excessive demand by increasing the price of a product, stopping sales promotion, etc.

8. Opposing designed to eliminate or reduce the demand for goods that are harmful to public welfare ( alcoholic drinks, tobacco products).

BASICS OF MANAGEMENT AND MARKETING

Lecture course

Vitebsk

CONTENT

BASICS OF MANAGEMENT

1. The essence and concept of management.

Any organization and industrial enterprise, and a supermarket, and a bank need high-quality management. Management is understood as the influence of the leader on his object, aimed at achieving the goal. The management of an organization becomes especially difficult in the conditions of a modern market system built on economic freedom, private property and ensuring the rights of citizens. Organization management in a market economy is called management. The fundamental qualitative difference between management and management in a planned economy lies in the completely new goal activities, and methods for achieving this goal. The goal of managing an organization in a planned economy is the implementation of a formal plan developed by the bureaucracy. The goal of management is the most complete satisfaction of constantly taken into account the real needs of a person through the market mechanism of demand, supply and profit. The method of achieving the goal of managing an organization in a planned economy is administrative regulation based on non-economic command pressure. The method of achieving the goal of management is the creation of an employee's economic interest in the results of his work.
The manager represents a new type of manager for our country, which has a number of distinctive features: 1) a radically new goal of activity; 2) transition to economic methods of managing an organization; 3) the ability to innovate, forecast and take risks. The most important professional traits of a manager are the ability to make informed decisions and take responsibility for them.
The need to resolve complex and multifaceted problems of managing organizations in a market environment and the corresponding civil democratic society stimulated the emergence of a special field of knowledge - scientific management. The main sources of this interdisciplinary field of science can be divided into three streams:

technical systems

The first stream brought to management a scientific basis for organizing collective work and managing work teams, knowledge of the laws of market relations and the economics of enterprises. The second stream gave management the theory of constructing the structure of an organization and its management system, methods of justifying and making optimal management decisions, forecasting and risk, knowledge of self-government and self-organization of complex systems. Management owes the third stream knowledge in the field of modern production management and its automation, computerization of management decisions, and ensuring high reliability of management systems. These sources are implemented in modern management as its components in three main areas of activity:
1. In the commercial sphere - in the interests of entrepreneurship. Here management is used to manage business enterprises that produce goods and services. Its main goal is to make high profits.
2. In social sphere- in institutions of education, culture, healthcare, social work with the population, as well as in organizations that manage social processes. The main task of management here is the achievement of statutory goals.
3. In the political sphere - in executive authorities at the state and local levels of government. Here the main task- ensure governance in a market economy and civil democratic society.
Management has two main purposes - science and practice. The task of management as a science is to develop the theory of management. Management practice is associated with the use of theoretical principles in specific work on managing an organization and the generalization of this practice for the development of theory. Real management activities are much richer and more diverse in content than the theoretical principles underlying them. Actions must very subtly capture the properties of specific situations. A manager works in a dynamic environment where changes are constantly occurring in the external and internal environment of the organization. The task comes down to constantly keeping the nature of these changes under control and acting in accordance with them.
No theory or behavioral model can capture all the complexities of management situations. This can only be done by a specific person - a participant in such a diverse and complex process, endowed not only with knowledge of management theory, but also with experience, business qualities, and intuition. Therefore, management is objectively an art where a person quickly evaluates all the factors characterizing the real situation and, based on this, makes the best decisions. Thus, we can say that management is a science, a practice and an art.

2. The evolution of management as a scientific discipline.

The concept of “management” arose in close connection with the type of occupation that the first settlers in America were engaged in. It denoted the ability to run a household, handle tools and objects of labor, as well as weapons, break horses and manage them. However, with a change in the occupation of the population, the emergence of many professions and types of work, a need arose for activities that would link various performers, teams, and social groups in a single production process.
The first objective prerequisite that stimulated interest in management was industrial Revolution in England. The current market situation has become the second objective prerequisite for the development of management. The third prerequisite is related to the emergence of transcontinental companies. Their creation was completed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and turned America into the largest single (continental) market in the world. These and other factors made it possible to form large industries and specific enterprises, the scale and complexity of which required formalized management methods. Thus, the emergence and establishment of management as a field of scientific research was, firstly, a response to the needs of big business for professional management. Secondly, this was facilitated by the opportunity to take advantage of the technology created during the industrial revolution. And thirdly, it was the achievement of a small group of enterprising and inquisitive people who showed an ardent desire to look for better and more effective techniques and ways of doing work. Advances in the development of management science were interconnected with achievements in other fields of knowledge, including the development of technology and research into man and human relations (mathematics, engineering, psychology, sociology, etc.). Because of this, management as the management of an organization has acquired an interdisciplinary character. As these areas of knowledge have developed, management theorists and practitioners have become increasingly aware of the factors influencing organizational success. The interdisciplinary science of organization management began to be called management thought. The new knowledge gained helped specialists understand the reasons why earlier theories in certain conditions did not stand the test of practice, and find new approaches to solving management problems.
At the same time, great changes were taking place in the world associated with scientific and technological progress, with changes in the attitudes of society and governments towards business. These and other factors prompted representatives of management thought to analyze the presence of not only internal, but also external factors in relation to the organization that influence business success. New approaches to management were developed that actually reflected the evolution of management as a science. Given this evolution, four management approaches are known.

Table. The contribution of various schools to the development of management thought.

Approaches, schools	Contributions from various schools
1. Approach from the perspective of management schools School scientific management (1885 – 1920)	Using scientific analysis to the best ways completing the task. Selecting workers best suited to perform tasks and training them Providing employees with the resources they need to effectively complete tasks. Systematic and correct (fair) use of material incentives. Separation of managerial work from non-managerial work.
Administrative school (1920 – 1950)	Development of organizational management principles. Description of universal management functions and types of management activities. A systematic approach to managing an organization. Determining the structure of the organization.
School of Human Relations (1930 – 1950)	Applying interpersonal relationship management techniques to improve satisfaction and productivity. Applying the science of human behavior to management and shaping the organization so that every employee is used to his or her potential
School of Management Science (1950–present)	Enhance understanding of complex management problems through the development and application of models. Development of quantitative methods of assessment and justification to help the manager accepting management decisions in difficult situations.
2. Process approach	Management is a single process that represents a continuous sequence of interrelated management functions.
3. Systematic approach	Organization is open system, acting in interaction with the external environment. Therefore, management should be aimed at achieving the goals of the organization, taking into account changes in environmental factors and their impact on the organization.
4. Situational approach	The management process is a system of interrelated internal variables of an organization, environmental factors and specific management methods. The suitability and effectiveness of the use of various management methods is determined by the situation.

3. Laws and principles of management

Production management is effective only when it is based on the intelligent application of objective laws. Production functions and develops on the basis of a set of laws of the economy, social and social structure, and scientific and technological progress.
The main link in the management system is objective economic laws that express stable cause-and-effect relationships in production relations, which make it possible to determine the existing dependencies between individual processes and phenomena in the economy. The control system implements these connections and dependencies in various spheres of public life, being at the same time a means of implementing economic laws.
The general laws of control include:
Law of management specialization. The essence of this law is that the management of the enterprise is carried out by a significant number of employees. Therefore, there is a need to separate the various functions and powers of individuals and teams.
Law of Management Integration. The very concept of integration is inherent in the essence of management. Integration is the unification of disparate, specialized actions into a common process of functioning and development of management. This law, like the first, is objective in nature, i.e. in practical work, management cannot be carried out without uniting and coordinating the activities of many workers.
The law of necessary and sufficient centralization of management. In practice, it manifests itself as the law of the optimal combination of centralization and decentralization. It assumes, on the one hand, centralized, concentrated management, i.e. implementation of the management process vertically (from top to bottom), on the other hand, it provides for the need to transfer certain management powers to lower levels of the hierarchy.
The law of democratization of management. It assumes that management is effective only if it satisfies the needs of specific people. To achieve this, it is important that management is not only professional, but also democratic. The democratization of management provides for the solution of a number of important issues: the participation of a significant number of employees in the management process, for example, by transferring property to them (in the form of shares or other valuable papers); application of the law of decentralization of management; innovations in management structure, etc.
The law of rational use of time, or the law of time management. This law is one of the most important laws of a market economy. In essence, time has transformed into economic category, the value of which determines all aspects of the enterprise’s activity (duration of production, speed of capital turnover, adaptation to changing conditions, etc.). With a market system of management, it is important to get ahead of your competitors, find new markets faster, and start producing products earlier than others. new products, timely transform management structures, etc.
Mastering economic laws allows one to scientifically and reasonably identify the basic principles, methods and means of managing the production, distribution and exchange of material goods in accordance with the needs and interests of the enterprise and its individual employees.
The principles of management arise from the laws of management and reflect the essential features of the economic system within which they operate and are conditioned by the production relations prevailing in society. The basic principles of management can be divided into three groups.
1. Principles of production management:
- the principle of profitability, which is associated, first of all, with product quality and increased labor productivity;
- the principle of planning is based on the economic freedom of the commodity producer and the economic self-determination of the individual;
- principles that determine the efficiency of a company in the future: computerization, scientific organization of management work and innovation;
- the principle of designing organizational structures, which provides for a complete reorganization of management and production structures every 2–3 years.
2. Principles of people management:

corporate culture

The principles of this group determine the policy of management in countries with a highly developed economy - a focus on the humanization of management, the priority of a person in production and management relations.
3. Principles that contribute to the formation of a manager’s personality.
This group of principles can be characterized as basic in terms of the effectiveness of the functioning of the principles of the first two groups. It is impossible to ensure the effectiveness of management, production efficiency, the introduction of innovations, the conquest of markets, the humanization of management, etc. without a professionally trained manager. In developed countries, the following two principles are recognized as priority:

4. Basic management functions.

The word "function" is of Latin origin and means performance, activity, duty. Management functions are the types of activities necessary for the organization and management of a particular object. In their totality, management functions constitute management technology. To the most important general functions management include the following:
The planning function represents the first link in the chain of management processes in an organization (enterprise, firm). Planning - developing the organization's goals and determining the best ways to achieve them. The planning process contains several stages:
- identifying the goals of the organization (these are broad long-term guidelines for the organization), i.e. what the enterprise operates for;
- defining the objectives of the organization’s activities (these are specific short-term guidelines);
- drawing up work plans to complete previously defined tasks and preparing standards;
- development of general directions for the implementation of plans at each management level, i.e. systems of measures aimed at achieving goals and objectives;
- development of specific schemes and rules for performing tasks.
The function of an organization is the process of allocating resources to fulfill the company's plans. At this stage, the manager must take into account all the activities performed by employees - from software of the company's computers to the work of truck drivers and sending correspondence - as well as all technical means and equipment used by workers in their activities. The main problem is the choice of the most suitable division of labor option for the goals and objectives of the organization and the subsequent staffing, including the corresponding positions, as well as determining the size wages workers, helping them acquire skills and assessing the quality of their work.
Leadership function - actions aimed at encouraging people to work efficiently and willingly. People with different backgrounds, individual interests, aspirations and personal goals enter into certain positions and relationships with people, dictated by the organizational process. To unite employees and the organization as a whole into an effective work team, a manager must successfully master leadership. When supervising subordinates, managers can give tasks, show how to do the work, give orders, evaluate the work of workers and correct their mistakes. Leadership consists of two interrelated processes. Firstly, it includes motivation, that is, creating incentives for employees to work with full dedication. Secondly, leadership includes mentoring, when the manager introduces the employee to what and how he should do, showing him specific techniques for doing the job, as well as demonstrating his personal attitude and approach to work.
The control function is monitoring how the organization moves towards its intended goal, revising its course (if goals and objectives change in response to changing conditions) and correcting deviations from the adopted course (if it fails to achieve its goals and objectives). Managers judge the state of affairs in the company based on reports received from other employees of the company and from external sources. They develop guidelines in accordance with the goals and objectives outlined at the planning stage. They then make adjustments as necessary by rescheduling, reorganizing, or refocusing. Thus, in the control process, all three management functions are coordinated, since shortcomings in their implementation are identified.

5. Management methods.

Management considers management methods as a set of various methods and techniques used by the administration of companies to activate the initiative and creativity of people in the process labor activity and satisfying their natural needs. Management methods are economic, organizational and administrative and socio-psychological.
Economic methods affect the property interests of firms and their personnel. They are based on the economic laws of society, the market and the principles of remuneration for labor results. Economic methods, on the one hand, stimulate the activities of firms to satisfy the interests of society (system of taxes, bank loans, etc.), on the other hand, they serve to motivate the work of personnel (salaries, bonuses, rewards for innovation).
Organizational and administrative methods are based on the objective laws of organizing and managing joint activities, the natural needs of people to interact with each other in a certain order. Organizational and administrative methods are divided into three groups:
organizational-stabilizing: establish long-term connections in management systems between people and their groups (structure, staff, regulations on performers, operating regulations, concepts of company management);
administrative: provide operational management of the joint activities of people and firms; manifest themselves in the form of contracts, orders, instructions;
disciplinary: designed to maintain the stability of organizational connections and relationships, as well as responsibility for certain work.
Socio-psychological methods are ways of influencing the social and psychological interests of firms and their personnel (the role and status of individuals, groups of people, firms, psychological climate, ethics of behavior and communication, etc.). Socio-psychological management methods consist of social and psychological and must comply with the moral, ethical and social norms of society.
Social methods:
- increasing social and production activity (copying leaders, establishing standards of exemplary behavior in all areas of activity);
- maintaining social continuity (skills competitions, initiation of qualified personnel, celebrations of the founding and successful completion of large business operations of companies, etc.);
- social regulation (establishment of norms for relations between company employees, internal regulations, production etiquette; development and strict observance of values that are common to all company personnel, etc.);
- moral stimulation (individual and collective).
Psychological methods in management practice are used to harmonize the relationships between company employees and establish the most favorable psychological climate. These include:
- humanization of work (elimination of monotony, color painting of premises and equipment, use of specially selected music);
- psychological motivation (encouraging creativity, initiative and independence);
- satisfaction of professional interests, increasing the creative content of work;
- professional selection and training of company personnel for more effective use of individual abilities in work;
- selection of people according to psychological characteristics and development of necessary psychological qualities;
- staffing small groups based on the criterion of psychological compatibility of workers;
- establishing normal relationships between managers and subordinates.

6. Characteristics and elements of the organization

The manager's field of activity is the organization. An organization is a group of people united by common goals. Such goals in management are making a profit and solving the statutory tasks of the organization. Enterprises, institutions, as well as associations of several organizations can act as organizations. Organizations usually have legal status legal entity. Any organization assumes a certain location on the territory and within the space allotted for it there, a specific structure - its constituent parts and their interaction (hierarchy, interconnection), as well as the division between these parts of the duties provided for them - functions.
The characteristics of each organization should include:
main goals and objectives;
components (divisions);
distribution of functions between departments;
resources used;
external and internal environment;
control system;
volume of management activities.
The purpose of the organization (the ultimate goal) is to make a profit (for commercial organizations) and fulfill its statutory purpose (for non-profit organizations). An organization's objectives describe the steps leading to achieving that goal. In accordance with the goals and objectives of the organization and the needs of effective management, the necessary units are created.
The organization's activities involve the use of various resources: natural (arable land, minerals, water resources); capital (material and intellectual property); labor (physical and mental abilities of personnel); managerial (the ability to rationally manage resources and organize work). In the course of the organization's activities, purposeful processing of materials, energy and information occurs.
The external environment of the organization is formed by the country's economy, market conditions, legislation, authorities, state and municipal administration, public organizations, partners, competitors, the media, the level of technology and technology, moral guidelines of society, etc.
The internal environment of an organization is its mission, goals, objectives, personnel, structure, management technologies, production, and information processing.
The management system is the most important characteristic of an organization. This system presupposes the presence and functioning of managers and control objects, channels for transmitting command information and status information (feedback), targeted processing of this information, and activities for preparing and making management decisions.
The volume of management activities is directly related to the composition, content and scale of the tasks solved by the organization and, depending on this, can be carried out as follows:
- with a limited range of tasks, the organization can be managed by one of their performers;
- expanding the range of tasks requires the allocation of a special person - a manager - to manage the organization;
- a further increase in the field of activity of the organization, associated with the multiplication and complication of the tasks facing it, requires the creation of a linear hierarchy and functional specialization of management, the emergence of professional management - management.

7. Elements of the management process

The effectiveness of work in an organization is determined by the degree and level of development of the vertical division of labor. This division forms management levels or management hierarchy. The word “hierarchy” came into the theory and practice of management from the church sphere. The term itself comes from a combination of the Greek words hieros (holy, sacred) and arche (power). In science, hierarchy reflects the arrangement of parts or elements of a whole (of some system, for example) in order from highest to lowest. In management, hierarchy means the structure, arrangement of subjects, positions, official ranks, ranks in the order of their subordination (hierarchical ladder). Hierarchy is a synonym for a power structure that has a step (level) structure; it is also a management principle, reflecting the subordination of subjects of lower levels to subjects of higher levels.

Top managers

Middle management

Lower management

Management hierarchy – organizational structure, having the shape of a pyramid, consisting of top, middle and lower levels of management.
Senior managers are representatives of the highest level of management who have the greatest power and are responsible for the activities of the entire company. An example is the CEO of a business, who defines the organization's objectives, develops long-term plans, formulates policies, and represents the company externally. Although senior managers in the same corporations may be called differently - chairman of the board of directors, president, vice president - the functions they perform can be completely similar in content. The responsibilities of middle managers include developing plans for the implementation of overall goals established at the highest level of management and coordinating the work of lower-level managers. The middle level of management includes enterprise managers, department and service managers, as well as other departments. At the lowest level of the management hierarchy, low-level managers (or manager-controllers) are concentrated. They oversee the work of performers and implement plans developed at higher levels of management. This level combines the following positions: shop foreman, site foreman, group leader and head of an office-type unit. As more and more companies cut production costs and decentralize their operations, the number of jobs at the middle management level is reduced while more power is transferred to lower-level managers. A higher degree of responsibility forces lower-level managers to improve their educational level and better master management skills.
Management activity in general is characterized by a great variety of specific work performed, its short duration and fragmentation. The behavior of managers in an organization is determined by their roles. Manager roles are a set of specific behavioral rules appropriate to a specific organization and specific position which a leader must play in a particular situation. At the same time, an individual personality can influence the nature of the performance of a specific role, but not its content. There are 10 roles that managers perform in different periods of management and to varying degrees in relation to the specifics and scale of the organization, as well as the position they occupy. These roles are grouped into three groups: interpersonal roles, information roles and decision-making roles.
Interpersonal roles, also called role attitudes, define the manager's behavior as the head (chief executive) and liaison when performing work related to people in and outside the organization. Information roles (role settings) of all managers include the functions of receiving (receiver) and distributing (distributor) information related to the receipt, collection and dissemination of information, as well as the representative of the organization when presenting it in the external environment. Decision-making roles define the behavior of managers as an entrepreneur, eliminating disruptions in the organization, an allocator of resources in the organization to achieve its goals, and a negotiater to achieve benefits and remove obstacles to the organization's success. Managers continually change roles as they face daily challenges and unexpected situations. However, depending on the manager's organizational level, one type of role may dominate others in importance.

8. Formation of a vertical structure.

An organizational structure is both a way and a form of uniting people to achieve common production and management goals. The organizational structure of the enterprise is documented in graphical diagrams of the structure, staffing schedules, regulations on the divisions of the management apparatus, and job descriptions of individual performers. The most important characteristics of organizational structures: number of links; hierarchy: number of steps or levels; the nature of the distribution of powers and responsibilities vertically and horizontally in the structure of the management system. To develop a company's organizational structure, managers must consider three stages:

The vertical structure connects the activities of the highest organizational levels with the middle and lower levels of the structure to achieve the overall goals of the organization. Senior managers, having determined the purpose and goals of the organization, formulate specific tasks necessary to achieve these goals. And to carry out these tasks, they hire people who can help them achieve their goals. Since few workers have the skills needed to perform all the functions that companies need, they can only operate through division of labor (or specialization).
An organization works more smoothly if employees know not only what exactly they should do and when, but also who monitors whether they are doing the assigned task correctly. Therefore, planners who design the division of labor for an organization must take care to provide sufficient authority to those who will need it to perform that particular job. In all organizations, employees are vested with certain job responsibilities, that is, they must perform the functions assigned to them and realize the goals and objectives associated with their position
Managers are responsible for ensuring that all employees perform their responsibilities based on authority - the right to make decisions, give orders, take actions and allocate resources to achieve the organization's goals. The structural diagram of the organization clearly demonstrates who has authority over whom, who bears what responsibilities, and who is responsible to whom for their implementation.

Rice. 1. Diagram of the line-staff organizational structure.

Each vertical structure has very specific channels for exercising power and exchanging information. By distributing tasks, powers and responsibilities, the vertical structure forms a system of subordination - a continuous line of authority that connects each level of workers with the next. This line of command defines who has the authority to give orders and who is accountable to whom. Subordination is associated with two basic principles: 1) each employee is accountable to only one boss and 2) the power structure in the organization covers all employees and has a strictly defined form.
The simplest and most common system of subordination is called a linear organizational structure, which clearly embodies the transfer of power from the upper echelons to the lower ones. Businesses organized according to a line structure enjoy a number of practical advantages. Due to the fact that in a linear organization, managers clearly understand their sphere of decision-making authority, this process is significantly accelerated, maintaining discipline is simplified, and channels of business communication, which are direct, are easily established. In addition, due to the simplicity of the linear organization, it is cheaper.
At the same time, the linear organization has at least three significant shortcomings. First, because all decisions are made centrally, lower-level workers are deprived of the opportunity to gain the experience they need to move up the career ladder. Secondly, technical difficulties in a company’s activities sometimes require special knowledge that its top managers may not possess and which they do not have the opportunity to acquire in short time. Third, expanding the scope of a company's activities may entail increasing levels of subordination, which in turn will slow down the exchange of information and decision making.
A more complex system, known as the line-staff organizational structure, arose from the need to combine specialization with managerial control. In this form of organization there is a clear chain of command from top to bottom, but it also includes functional groups of workers under the authority of the administrative apparatus. Typically, a line organization covers the management of the organization's core activities. The administrative apparatus complements the line organizational structure by providing advice and specialized services. Representatives of the apparatus are not included in the subordination structure of the linear organization. The main advantage of a line-staff organizational structure is the ability to connect specialists in specific areas to a formal chain of command.

9. Formation of structural units.

The formation of structural units means that an organization groups its employees into departments, which they then combine into larger structural units necessary to achieve its goals. By determining how human resources are allocated within an organization, departmental structure naturally influences how that organization operates; for example, it dictates the number of managers needed to link each department with higher and lower hierarchical levels
Departments can be organized according to function (what people do), specialization (by product, process, clientele or geography), as well as by teams (including the project manager), matrices (a combination of functional and specialized departments) and networks (organizations , interconnected by an electronic system and performing vital functions). These types of units are not mutually exclusive, so several of them may be used in the same organization.
Functional division is the division of an organization's employees into groups depending on the similarity of their skills, experience, scope of activity and resources used. The most typical functional departments include production and marketing departments, human resources departments, financial and research departments, and accounting.
In specialized division, departments are formed in accordance with the uniformity of products, production process, customer range or geography of activity. In such a structure, each division is an independent unit that has all the functional resources necessary to achieve the goal. That is, such a structural unit practically does not require the support of other divisions. For example, in a functional structure, all the accountants would be grouped into one department and all the engineers into another, while in a specialized structure, groups of engineers and accountants are included in each department. One of the differences between functional and specialized structures is the level at which decisions are made. In a functional structure, differences in the responsibilities of engineers and accountants would be established at the highest level of management. In a specialized structure, the decision moves down the hierarchy to the level of department heads.
Specialized units have many advantages. They are able to respond quickly to changes because they do not have to coordinate their activities with other departments, which makes the organization more flexible. This structure helps improve customer service because each division focuses on a limited number of products, customers, or geographic regions. In such a structure, it is easier for upper-level managers to focus on complex problems, and novice managers gain broader professional experience (as they have the opportunity to try themselves in performing various functions in their department). But division by type of specialization also has its disadvantages. It can lead to duplication of resources in different structural units, thereby increasing costs. In addition, coordination between departments may be too weak: employees of individual departments sometimes concentrate too much on the narrow goals of their department and, in the end, forget about the ultimate goal of the organization. And finally, a situation may arise when departments begin to compete with each other for employees, money and other resources, and such competition can be detrimental to the organization as a whole.
Team division is the distribution of workers into functional departments and at the same time into teams operating on a permanent or temporary basis. The desire of modern companies to involve lower levels of management in decision making has led to the spread of the trend of team division, when workers are distributed among functional departments and at the same time in permanent or temporary teams designed to solve general problems of the organization. Teams give organizations greater flexibility and ability to respond to change. They also stimulate employees to be creative, develop strategic thinking, and facilitate the coordination of various functions. However, teams also have some disadvantages. Conflicts related to dual subordination may arise among team members. Due to the need to spend time on meetings and collaborative discussions, actual productivity in teams can decrease. And finally, teams are sometimes characterized by excessive decentralization of decision making, which is why functional managers lose control over the situation, and for team leaders, the desire for group goals pushes into the background the overall goals of the corporation.
In a matrix division, workers are combined simultaneously into permanent functional groups and project teams, using a combination of the principles of both functional and specialized structures. Organizations use a matrix structure when the work of functional units requires complex skills and high qualifications and, at the same time, the organization needs flexibility to successfully adapt to changing external conditions.
In project management, workers organized into functional groups temporarily leave their permanent jobs in the regular hierarchy when they are assigned to work on a specific project. After its completion, the temporary project team is disbanded. For example, Merck assigns a project manager to each promising study. This manager must lead the project from start to finish and oversee its progress through all the countless departments - from the research department to government approval, where the project receives final approval. It is the project manager who convinces scientists of various disciplines to devote their time and resources to any project that builds trust in a particular product and promotes cohesion among team members.
Network sharing is a relatively recent invention; while the main functions are distributed to individual companies, which are interconnected and with a small parent organization, which is their headquarters, a single electronic system. The engineering, marketing, research, and accounting departments are no longer part of the same organization; they become independent organizations working under a contract. The network approach is especially convenient for international operations, as it allows you to attract resources from all over the world. The network structure is particularly flexible due to its ability to attract exactly the resources that are required, and then move on to others within a short period of time. The organization can be constantly changing, and employees are provided with a wide variety of activities, and they get great job satisfaction. However, this approach deprives management of direct control because the individual transactions are so widely dispersed. In addition, one of the companies in the network may fail in its business or disrupt the necessary supplies, which will cause serious problems for the parent organization. Finally, it is unlikely that under these conditions, employees will develop loyalty to the main company and team spirit.

10. Characteristics of an informal organization.

In every work collective, along with the formal (official) structure of relationships, there are also informal (informal) relations between members of the team. If official relations are regulated by appropriate instruments, orders, instructions, then unofficial ones are not regulated by anyone and nothing. Groups of people created by the will of the leadership to achieve the goals of the organization are called formal. Their primary function is to perform specific tasks and achieve the goals of the organization. Relations between people are regulated by various normative documents: laws, decrees, orders, orders, etc.
A spontaneously formed group of people who enter into regular interaction to achieve certain goals is recognized as an informal group (organization). Relations between members of such a group are formed on the basis of personal sympathies. Members of the group are connected by a commonality of views, inclinations and interests. There is no list of team members, responsibilities, or agreed upon roles. Informal groups exist in every organization. It is important for the organization that informal groups do not dominate. An informal group can contribute to prosperity or hinder the development of an organization. The manager's job is to minimize the influence of these groups and channel their power.
The reasons that encourage people to enter into informal relationships can be grouped as follows: a sense of belonging, mutual assistance, communication, sympathy. Informal organizations can be both similar and different from formal organizations. Therefore, we can distinguish the features that characterize informal organizations:

social control

It's about

The existence of informal groups in an organization is quite normal phenomenon. Such groups most often strengthen the workforce, and the formal head of the organization should support them. Friendly contacts during work and after it, cooperation and mutual assistance form a healthy psychological climate in the organization.

11. Personnel management system

In the management system of each organization there is a subsystem for managing personnel and social development of the team (personnel department), but the main part of the work on personnel management is performed by the heads of departments. Personnel managers are an independent group of professional managers whose main goals are to increase the production, creative output and activity of personnel, develop and implement a program for its development. The total number of personnel management employees is approximately 1.0 - 1.2% of the total number of employees. The role and organizational status of the personnel management service is largely determined by the level of organizational, financial, potential development of the organization and the position of its management.
A modern approach to the formation of a general concept and structuring of the functional division of labor in the field of personnel management in an organization involves the identification of the following blocks:
1. Determination of personnel requirements: planning of qualitative and quantitative personnel requirements, selection of methods for calculating quantitative personnel requirements.
2. Providing personnel: obtaining and analyzing marketing information in the field of personnel, developing and using tools to ensure the need for personnel, personnel selection and assessment, personnel adaptation, employment management.
3. Personnel development: planning and implementation of career and career moves, professional and administrative growth, organization and conduct of training.
4.Use of personnel: organization and support of labor processes, determination of the content and results of labor in the workplace, analysis of labor costs and results, labor productivity management, industrial socialization, introduction of personnel, their adaptation in work activities, streamlining of jobs, release of personnel.
5.Motivation of labor results and personnel behavior: managing the content and process of motivating labor behavior, conflict management, the use of monetary incentive systems (wages, staff participation in profits and in the capital of the enterprise, etc.), justification of the income structure, the degree of their differentiation, design remuneration systems, the use of non-monetary incentive systems (group organization and social communications, democratic leadership styles and methods, regulation of working hours).
6.Legal and information support for the personnel management process: legal regulation of labor relations, personnel accounting and statistics, informing the team and external organizations on personnel issues, development of personnel policy.
7. Development and implementation of the social policy of the enterprise.
8. Ensuring rational working conditions: creating safe working conditions and a socio-psychological atmosphere favorable for every person.
9. Prevention and elimination of conflicts.
10.Organization of innovation activity.
11. Participation in tariff negotiations between representatives of employers and employees.
The personnel management service performs its functions together with the heads of the enterprise, linear and functional departments. The scope of work for each of these functions depends on the size of the enterprise, the characteristics of the products produced, the situation on the labor market, the qualifications of personnel, the degree of automation of production, the socio-psychological situation at the enterprise and beyond.
The development of the personnel management service usually begins with the emergence of headquarters units with purely advisory functions, and then, as human resource potential develops, the personnel service is endowed with managerial powers and begins to directly participate in the management of the organization.
The following options for the organizational structure of the personnel management service are possible:
1) with a small number of personnel and insignificant labor intensity of the function of the personnel management system, the implementation of individual tasks is entrusted to a specific specialist, and not to a department;
2) when the functional areas of the organization are sufficiently isolated in spatial and administrative terms, a personnel management service is created, which has several divisions (for example, a research and development personnel service, a financial and accounting management service, a production personnel service, etc.);
3) with a product type of structure, the central personnel service, subordinate to the head of the organization, includes personnel services for product A, B, C, etc., while the presence of a centralized personnel service is determined by the degree of legal and administrative independence of product divisions;
4) in large organizations with broad financial capabilities, there may be further structuring of the internal divisions of the personnel management system with the allocation of independent departments, for example, the training department (training and retraining of personnel).

12. Management work

The concept of managerial work is to a certain extent connected with the concept of management as an object or sphere of its application. If we consider that any work manifests itself in two forms - physical and mental, then one of the types of mental work is managerial.
Managerial work has become a special category of social labor with subsequent differentiation by types and subtypes of work and is based on the understanding of management as a type of professional activity inherent in any joint work. If a group of people participates in one common labor process, then the need to coordinate their labor efforts necessarily arises.
Managerial work is a type of social labor, the main task of which is to ensure targeted, coordinated activities as individual participants in a joint labor process, and work collectives as a whole. In essence, this is the systematic activity of administrative and managerial personnel aimed at organizing, regulating, motivating and monitoring the work of the organization’s employees. The content of managerial work depends on its object and is determined by the structure of production processes, labor methods, its technical equipment, as well as the relationships that arise in the process of performing managerial functions.
Managerial work has its own specific characteristics:
1) he participates in the creation of material wealth not directly, but through the labor of other persons;
2) the subject of managerial work is the management process and the people participating in it;
3) its result is management decisions;
4) the means of labor are organizational and computer technology;
5) this is mental work, therefore direct measurement of its productivity is possible only in relation to technical performers and partly specialists.
With the development of market relations and the further deepening of the processes of division and cooperation of labor, managerial work is isolated into a relatively independent sphere and secured by certain organizational forms, which together form an autonomous system of managing the organization. Not only the use of superficial, but also deep (strategic) reserves of the organization depends on the level of managerial work. The main feature of this type of work activity is that the manager solves the problems of developing and improving the organization from an organizational aspect, influencing the people who directly must solve these problems.

13. Management work culture.

One of the main elements of management is management culture. Managerial culture is a set of values, norms, points of view and ideas typical for a manager, which consciously form the pattern of his behavior. Managerial work is based on certain norms that must be strictly observed by the manager. The most important of them:
1) legal standards of managerial work, which are reflected in state legal regulations. Manager culture in this sense consists of knowledge and compliance with legal norms;
2) moral norms - regulate the manager’s behavior in the field of ethics and ethics;
3) organizational norms - establish the structure of the organization, the composition and procedure for the activities of functional units and their managers; internal regulations and other norms of the organizational plan adopted in the organization;
4) economic norms - regulate the economic activities of the organization.
There are other types of norms (technical, aesthetic, etc.) that shape management culture in a certain way. Ultimately, a set of elements is formed that characterizes the activities of a manager within the framework of the culture of managerial work.
Personal culture. Includes skill level; ethical education; personal hygiene and appearance; form of address to subordinates, etc.
Rational distribution of working time. This is clear planning of personal work on the following directions: work with documents; work with personnel; solving socio-economic issues; resolving commercial issues; meetings, negotiations; waste of time; unspecified time.
Workplace culture. Only the documents necessary for work should be on the desktop. In the office premises it is necessary to carry out timely cleaning and replace damaged furniture.
Culture of holding mass events. This includes a culture of holding various kinds of meetings, negotiations and conversations.
Culture of receiving visitors. Assumes compliance with the rules and requirements when hiring employees, both on personal and official matters. Most managers set specific days and times for appointments. If the manager for some reason cannot conduct a reception, then this should be done by his deputy.
Culture in working with letters. This includes mandatory registration of letters, determination of deadlines for their consideration, personal responsibility of the manager for timely and correct response to them, and a mandatory response to each letter.
A culture of speech. About 80% of a manager's working time involves contact with people. Therefore, the ability to speak (communicate) is an important part of a manager’s work culture.
Organizational culture of the leader. Determines the degree of knowledge of management theory, methods of organizational work, and the ability to perform various organizational procedures: selection and placement of personnel, work with personnel; development of organizational norms, personal work plans; setting tasks and bringing them to the attention of performers, management, control of execution, etc.

14. Characteristics of management decisions.

One of the indicators of a manager’s performance is his ability to make the right decisions. Making and making decisions is a creative process in the activities of a leader. A management decision is the most rational course of action out of many possible under the given operating conditions of the control system. In a broader sense, management decision is considered as the main type of management work, a set of interrelated, purposeful and logically consistent management actions that ensure the implementation of management tasks. Management decisions can be classified according to the following criteria:
- according to the degree of influence on the future of the organization: strategic and tactical;
- by functional purpose: planning, organizational, coordinating, regulating, control;
- by areas of action: economic, social, technical, technological, personnel, etc.;
- by duration: long-, medium- and short-term;
- according to the scale of the problems being solved: general, specific;
- according to the form of preparation: individual, collegial and collective decisions;
- according to the rigidity of regulation: contour, structured and algorithmic;
- on the basis of belonging to the hierarchical levels of the management system: higher, middle, lower levels;
- by development methods: heuristic, graphical, analytical;
- according to the degree of mandatory execution: directive, recommendatory and oriented;
- by degree of complexity: simple, complex and unique;
- by development methods: template and creative;
- by frequency of adoption: one-time (random) and recurring;
- by breadth of coverage: general (applicable to all employees) and special;
In management theory, there are also intuitive, adaptive and rational decisions. An intuitive decision is based on the manager's assumption that his choice is correct. He is influenced by the so-called “sixth sense”, a kind of insight that visits managers with a broad outlook. Adaptation decisions are based on general knowledge, common sense - meaningful experience of life, professional activity, and a heightened sense of reality. It involves taking those steps (as adjusted to date) that were successful in a similar situation in the past. The positive side of this solution is its simplicity and efficiency. However, it is characterized by subjectivity, due to the characteristics of the individual making the decision, the depth of his understanding of the situation and problem (which is also typical for an intuitive decision). A rational decision involves the use of scientific methods and objective criteria. But complete rationalism is also impossible.
Research shows that in 45 percent of cases decisions are not made because of an unpleasant problem, in 35 percent of cases because of unclear distribution of responsibilities, and in 20 percent of cases incorrect decisions are made. Thus, in practice, any decisions contain elements of irrationality and subjectivity, which places certain demands on the manager’s personality.
Management decisions, especially in large companies, affect the interests of many people, which requires careful and comprehensive preparation. Therefore, decision making acts as a process that requires organization and management. The decision making model is as follows:
Stage 1 – analysis of the problem situation and formulation of the problem:
Stage 2 – determining the parameters of the operation and selecting indicators of its success,
Stage 3 – construction of a descriptive (conceptual) model for choosing a solution:
Stage 4 – formation of a solution.
The decision-making process ends with the implementation of the decision, analysis of the results obtained and adjustment of the decision.

15. Methods of making management decisions.

When developing and making management decisions, a large group of methods is used. Heuristic methods are used if the dependencies between the elements of the problem problem are expressed by qualitative characteristics. Heuristic methods are based on logic, common sense and theoretical reasoning. They allow you to find solutions that are close to optimal. One of the main reasons for using heuristic methods is the presence of a large number of limitations and uncertainties, the impact of which is practically impossible or economically impractical to determine by analysis. For the most part, heuristic methods are based on the manager’s intuition. Their advantage is that they are made promptly; the disadvantage is that informal methods do not guarantee against making erroneous (ineffective) decisions.
Collective methods of discussion and decision-making can be different: a meeting, a meeting, work in a commission, etc. The most common method of collective preparation of management decisions is “brainstorming” or “brain attack”. It is designed to identify new ideas and solutions to problems through discussion in an environment conducive to generating innovation. All ideas are recorded and then analyzed by specialists. The Delphi method received its name from the Greek city of Delphi, famous for the sages who lived there - predictors of the future. The Delphi method is used to examine decisions by a group of experts in 4 rounds, during which they get acquainted with the assessments of their colleagues and, as a result, develop a consolidated opinion that takes into account the judgment of the members of the entire group. The ring (Japanese) system involves making decisions in accordance with individual preferences. If they do not coincide, then a preference vector arises, which is determined using one of the following principles: the majority vote principle, the dictator principle, the Cournot principle, the Pareto principle, the Edgeworth principle. Knowing the preferences of coalitions, one can make the optimal decision without harming each other.
Quantitative decision-making methods are based on the use by experts of the large information capabilities of computer technology and are considered the most modern:

16. Requirements for a manager.

Effective leadership implies the ability to share one's vision of problems with others, to motivate employees to achieve their goals, i.e. to manage with people, not to manage people. Because both people and situations are constantly changing, a manager must be flexible enough to accommodate the ongoing change. In this regard, it is necessary to develop a general model of a modern manager.
1. Manager's knowledge and skills.
A modern manager is perceived all over the world as an effective, innovative leader = leader + power + work style + career. The manager must have a broad outlook and systematic non-standard thinking on the issues of internal interconnection, factors of the corporation and the interaction of the latter with external environment. He must have high general human qualities and psychological abilities, have the ability to take reasonable and measured risks, be able to carry out business design, develop, adjust and implement a business plan. To be able to carry out marketing research, predict the development of the organization, taking into account the needs and the occupation of new innovative niches in it.
2. Personal qualities of a manager. The manager must have:

decisions made

3. Ethical standards of the manager. The manager in his activities with colleagues and partners is guided by generally accepted moral rules and norms: follow the methods of fair competition; do not use “dirty money” in your activities; “play openly”, if the partner does the same, try to fulfill the promise given to him under any conditions, use only honest methods when trying to influence subordinates, be demanding, but not offend dignity, be attentive and precautionary.
4. Personal resources of the manager. The main resources of a manager are: information and information potential, time and people, skillfully using which, the manager ensures high results, constantly increasing the competitiveness of the organization he leads.
5. The manager’s skills and abilities to effectively manage. The effectiveness of management can be influenced by:

Practice shows that some leaders skillfully lead people behind them, successfully overcoming the difficulties that arise, while others in such conditions cause only distrust on the part of their subordinates and fail. The inability to convince, motivate the actions of subordinates, and finally, to influence a person so that he wants to fulfill the decision made by the manager is evidence that the leader does not have the full set of qualities that a manager needs.

17. Power and personal influence.

The potential or real possibility of influencing others is called power. Power can take many forms: utilitarian (influence through strong motives), authoritarian-normative (legitimate power) and unitary (group power).
At the heart of leading people is influence, that is, psychological (emotional or rational) influence that is exerted on them in order to change behavior. The specific methods of influence are very diverse. In the group of emotional means of influence, the main place is occupied by “contagion” and imitation. “Contagion” is characterized by an almost automatic, unconscious transmission emotional state one person to another. Using the infection mechanism, a manager can significantly increase the cohesion of the team and mobilize it to achieve the organization’s goals. Imitation is the assimilation of actions, behavior, behavior and even the way of thinking of others. If “contagion” is characterized by the transfer of an emotional state, then conscious imitation is a way of borrowing the best that others have.
The group of methods of rational influence includes demand, persuasion, suggestion, praise, criticism, request, threat, bribery. The requirement assumes that one person, using the unilateral dependence (usually legal) of another person on him, prescribes certain actions to the latter. Conviction comes down to proving the correctness of one or another task of the leader. It, first of all, affects the mind, activates thinking, but at the same time touches feelings, causes experiences, as a result of which a change in views can occur. Therefore, persuasion must be not only rational, but also emotional. Suggestion is designed for uncritical perception of the words, thoughts and volitional impulses of the leader. It differs from persuasion in that it is categorical, pressured by the will and authority of the manager. Many managers successfully influence people through suggestion. Praise should follow any meritorious performance by performers that contributes to the achievement of the organization's goals. Lack of praise, especially for good work, undeserved or insincere praise demotivates, therefore, to increase its effectiveness, it is desirable to have objective criteria. Criticism is a form of negative assessment of shortcomings and omissions in work. It should, first of all, be constructive, stimulate human actions aimed at eliminating them, and indicate their possible options. A request is a way of influencing a subordinate, based on voluntary, motivating, non-coercive motives. By making a request, the manager is trying to appeal to the best side of the other person's nature. A positive result is achieved if there is a good relationship between the manager and the subordinate. Threat - intimidation, a promise to cause harm to a subordinate. They are based on the assumption that fear is sometimes a sufficient motive to induce a person to carry out instructions with which he internally disagrees. As a rule, threats work for a short time (while the subordinate is in the “fear zone,” i.e., afraid of the leader). The threat causes a fight between two personalities, and here the loser will always be the one who harbors the idea of winning in the future (no one wants to be a permanent loser). Bribery is inducing a subordinate to one's side, positioning a subordinate in one's favor by any means. Those. a manager can provide his subordinate with some benefits if he changes his behavior in a certain way. In some cases, bribery is an honest approach that provides a subordinate with additional rewards for extra effort, for example: “Work extra today and you can leave work early tomorrow.”
Every manager needs to know that using various ways influence on subordinates, one should be guided by the rules of business conduct and standards of professional ethics. In any case, the influence should not cause feelings of irritation, hatred, annoyance and stress in the subordinate.

18. Manager's authority.

Success in management depends not so much on the strength of power, but on the strength of the manager’s personal authority. There are spiritual values, without which there cannot be a true citizen, a conscious member of the team, or a good leader. These values include the authority of the manager. Authority is the well-deserved trust that a leader enjoys among his subordinates, senior management and work colleagues. This is recognition of the individual, assessment by the team of the compliance of the subjective qualities of the manager with objective requirements. Authority should be viewed as a system of relationships, values, and performance results. The authority of the manager, associated with the performance of his main functions according to his position, must be supported by personal example and high moral qualities. In this sense, two sources (statuses) of authority should be distinguished:

A leader who enjoys authority wins over people and influences them positively. Subordinates treat the decisions of an authoritative and non-authoritative manager differently. In the first case, the instruction is accepted without internal resistance, readily and is carried out, as a rule, without additional administrative pressure. Orders from unauthorized management always cause complex internal experiences, and distrust of such a manager results in distrust of his decisions. It should be borne in mind that concern for the authority of a leader is not only his personal matter, but also that of senior management, a manager at the same level, and especially subordinates, who are called upon to strengthen, protect and promote it. They should follow his example of a conscientious attitude to work, organization, honesty, and modesty. Authority should be considered as a factor that facilitates management and increases its effectiveness. While strengthening authority, the manager needs to ensure that he does not suppress or fetter the initiative of his subordinates. Techniques for creating (forming) authority must comply with the norms of morality and ethics in force in society. Artificial methods of building authority do not lead to success; as a result, an imaginary or false authority (pseudo-authority) appears. A. Makarenko identified the following types of pseudo-authority:
authority of distance - the leader believes that his authority increases if he is “farther” from his subordinates and behaves formally with them;
the authority of kindness - always be kind - this is the motto of this leader. This kindness reduces demands. Happens, good leader provides a disservice to a subordinate;
the authority of pedantry - in this case, the manager resorts to petty supervision and rigidly determines all stages of task completion by subordinates, thereby constraining their creativity and initiative;
authority of conceit - the leader is arrogant, proud and tries everywhere to emphasize his former or imaginary current merits. It seems to such a leader that these “merits” provide him with high authority;
authority of suppression - the manager resorts to threats, sows fear among subordinates. He mistakenly believes that such techniques will strengthen his authority. Ultimately, this deprives people of confidence, initiative, gives rise to overinsurance and even dishonesty.

19. Characteristics of management styles.

The word "style" is of Greek origin. Originally it meant a rod for writing on a wax board, and later it was used to mean “handwriting.” Hence, we can assume that leadership style is a kind of “handwriting” in the actions of a manager. A more complete definition of leadership style: a relatively stable system of ways, methods and forms of practical activity of a manager. In addition, management style is understood as the manner and method of behavior of a manager in the process of preparing and implementing management decisions.
Leadership style is a strictly individual phenomenon, since it is determined by the specific characteristics of a particular individual and reflects the characteristics of working with people and the decision-making technology of this particular individual. The style is regulated by the personal qualities of the manager. In the process of work, a certain strictly individual type, the “handwriting” of a leader, is formed, whose actions are almost impossible to repeat in detail. Just as no two fingerprints on a hand are alike, no two managers with the same leadership style are alike.
For the first time, the issue of leadership styles was considered by K. Levin, who identified authoritarian, democratic and liberal styles.
The authoritarian style is characterized by the centralization of power in the hands of one leader, who demands that all matters be reported only to him. This style is characterized by a focus on administration and limited contacts with subordinates. Such a manager single-handedly makes (or cancels) decisions, without giving his subordinates the opportunity to take initiative, is categorical, and is often harsh with people. He always orders, manages, instructs, but never asks. Everything new is perceived with caution or not at all, since in managerial work he practically uses the same methods. A leader becomes an autocrat when his qualities are lower than the people he leads, or if his subordinates have too low a general and professional culture. This style does not stimulate the initiative of subordinates; on the contrary, it is often punished by the autocrat, which makes it impossible to increase the efficiency of the organization.
A manager who uses a predominantly democratic style strives to resolve as many issues as possible collectively, systematically inform subordinates about the state of affairs in the team, and responds correctly to criticism. When communicating with subordinates, he is extremely polite and friendly, is in constant contact, delegates some managerial functions to other specialists, and trusts people. Demanding, but fair. All team members take part in preparing for the implementation of management decisions.
Head with liberal style management practically does not interfere in the activities of the team, and employees are given complete independence and the opportunity for individual and collective creativity. Such a leader is usually polite and ready with his subordinates.
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